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FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

A Text Book for Molders 
Students and Apprentices 



BY 



R. H. PALMER 



ii 

Molder, Foreman and Superintendent of Foundries ; Sometime Instructor 

in Foundry Practice at the Worcester Polytechnic 

Institute, Worcester, Mass. 



FIRST EDITION 
FIRST THOUSAND 



NEW YORK 
JOHN WILEY & SONS . 

London : CHAPMAN k HALL, Limited 

1912 







Copyright 191 1 
By R, H. Palmer 



/:2 -7/^ 



7' 



PBEBB OF THE FUBLIBHEBS PKINTING OOMPANT, NEW YORK, IT. 8. A. 



©CI.A305218 



PREFACE 

During his experience as instructor in foundry practice 
at the Worcester Polytechnic Institute, the author was 
"^ handicapped by the lack of a suitable text-book. The vol- 
^v ume presented here follows the scheme of instruction used by 
him, and, beginning with the simplest type of mold, endeav- 
ors to lead the student and apprentice gradually through the 
more difficult lines of work in green and dry sand and loam. 
From the many possible examples which might have been 
used to illustrate the different practices, only those have been 
selected which are typical of the class of work to which they 
belong. It is recommended that the reader, whenever pos- 
sible, supplement his study of this book by actually making 
molds of the character described in the various chapters. It 
is impossible to learn the art of molding by reading only. 

Such other matters as the student of foundry work should 
be acquainted with are included in the book, these including 
the subjects of cupola practice, mixing and melting, cleaning 
and repair of castings, etc. 

The author has endeavored to make a text-book for the 
student, apprentice, and molder, rather than a reference work 
for the finished foundryman. His thanks are due to Mr. 
Robert Thurston Kent, M.E., for editing the manuscript and 
reading the proofs. 

R. H. PALMER. 

Belmont, Allegany Co., N. Y., 
October i, 191 1. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. The Mold — Its Form and the Methods of Making It, . . i 

Molding a Split Pattern 8 

Molding a Split Pattern with a Web Center, 12 

II. Irregularly Shaped Patterns, . > 15 

Molding a Hand Wheel 17 

Coping Down Irregular Patterns, 18 

Molding in a Three-Part Flask 20 

Molding with a False Cheek, 21 

Molding Double Groove Sheave in a Three-Part Flask, . 22 

Gear Molding, 25 

III. Floor Molding, 30 

Molding Lathe-Bed Legs • 30 

Pouring Floor Molds 36 

Molding Pulleys, 37 

Molding Bevel Gears, 39 

IV. Light Crane Floor Work, 43 

Molding Wire-cloth Loom Frame 43 

V. Bedding Patterns in the Foundry Floor, 48 

Molding a Draw-Bench Frame in the Floor 49 

Molding a Gap-Press Frame 58 

VI. Molding Columns, 65 

Ornamental Columns, 65 

Round Columns 69 

VII. Molding with Sweeps, 75 

VIII. Molding Car-Wheels 84 

IX. Skin-Dried Molds, 90 

Molding an Engine Bed in a Skin-Dried Mold, .... 91 

X. Dry-Sand Molds, 100 

Molding a Corliss-Engine Cylinder in Dry Sand, . . . loi 

Molding Printing-Press Cylinders in Dry Sand, .... 108 



VI CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XI. Loam Molding ii6 

Molding a Cylinder in Loam, 120 

Molding Balance Wheels in Loam, 128 

Loam Mixtures, 132 

Sweeping Loam Cores, 132 

XIL Molds for Steel Castings, 134 

XIIL Dry-Sand Cores, 138 

XIV. Setting Cores and Using Chaplets, 156 

XV. Gates and Gating, 163 

Types of Gates, 168 

XVI. Risers, Shrinkheads and Feeding Heads, 174 

XVII. Treatment of Castings While Cooling, 176 

XVIII. Cleaning Castings, 181 

XIX. Molding Machines, 184 

Power Squeezers, 185 

Split-Pattern Machines, 190 

Jarring Machines 194 

Roll-Over Machines, 197 

When to Use a Molding Machine, 202 

XX. Mending Broken Castings, 204 

Burning, 204 

Thermit Welding 207 

Oxy-Acetylene Welding, 208 

XXI. Molding Tools, 210 

XXII. Molding Sands, 217 

Preparation of Sand for Molding, 226 

Facing Materials, 228 

XXIII. Iron and Its Composition, 234 

Grading of Pig Iron, 237 

Specifications for Foundry Pig Iron 239 

Analyses of Castings, 241 

Shrinkage of Cast-Iron, 244 

XXIV. The Cupola and Its Operation 245 

Calculation of Cupola Mixtures, 265 



CONTENTS Vll 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XXV. The Air-Furnace and Its Operation, 271 

XXVI. The Brass Foundry 275 

XXVII. Foundry Equipment . 280 

Glossary, 288 

Appendix, 298 

Circumference and Areas of Circles, 298 

Surface and Volume of Spheres, 304 

Weight and Specific Gravity of Metals, 307 

Melting Points of Various Substances 308 

Strength of Rope, ......' 309 

Strength of Chains 310 

Analyses of Fire-Clay, 311 

Sizes of Fire-Brick, 312 

Number of Fire-Brick Required for Various Circles, 313 

Weight of Castings Determined from Weight of Pattern, . . .314 

Dimensions of Foundry Ladles, 314 

Composition of Brass Foundry Alloys, 315 

Useful Alloys of Copper, Tin, and Zinc, 316 

Composition of Various Grades of Rolled Brass, etc., .... 317 

Shrinkage of Castings, 317 

Sizes of Pipes for Tumbling Barrels, 318 

Diameter of Exhaust Fan Inlets for Tumbling Barrels 318 

Steel Pressure Blowers for Cupolas, 319 

Capacity of Sturtevant High Pressure Blowers, 321 

Speed, Capacity, and Horse-Power of Sirocco Fans, 322 

Capacity of Rotary Blowers for Cupolas, 323 

Diameter of Blast Pipes 324 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



CHAPTER I 

THE MOLD— ITS FORM AND THE METHODS OF 
MAKING IT 

In all foundry practice, the mold is the essential feature. 
A mold is the form or cavity in a refractory material such as 
sand or loam, or in metal, into which molten metal is run or 
poured, and which determines the final shape of the poured 
metal after cooling. See Fig. i. 

While molds are made in many different materials, and of 
many different shapes and by diliferent methods, yet in their 
essential characteristics they are all alike. They are all made 
from a pattern, which may be of wood, metal, or other material ; 
except for the very largest molds, which are bedded in the 
floor of the foundry, and for certain other special kinds of 
molds, they are supported by and enclosed in a flask, which 
may be either of wood or metal, and which may be either 
rigid or hinged, the latter being known as a snap flask; they 
are formed in a material which will withstand the heat of the 
molten metal when it is poured into the mold, the more 
common materials being sand, either dry or green, loam, plaster 
of parts, and iron, the latter being used for chilled work such as 
car wheels, etc.; cavities in the casting, by which name the 
final product of the foundry is known, are formed by means of 
cores which may be either baked cores, or green-sand cores. 

Molding operations are variously subdivided. Thus, 
according to size, there is what is known as bench work, usually 
for the lighter class of castings, and floor work, for the heavier 
castings. According to materials of which the mold is com- 



2 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

posed, the work is classified as green-sand, dry-sand, loam, or 
chilled work. Another subdivision is hand work and machine 
work, depending on whether the mold is made by hand or in a 
molding machine. Each of these classifications may be still 
further subdivided, as will be shown in subsequent chapters. 
In order to introduce the student to the art of molding we 
will consider the simplest class of mold, and discuss the various 
operations in its production — a green-sand mold made at the 
bench, with a one-piece pattern, the entire pattern being 




Fig. I. — Opened Small Green-sand Mold in Snap Flask. 



placed in one section of the flask, and made without cores or 
other complications. 

In order that the description of the actual molding opera- 
tions may not be burdened with descriptions of tools and 
equipment, more or less irrelevant, and yet which are used in 
the work, it will be assumed for the time being that the reader 
is familiar with these, and with their use. Each piece of equip- 
ment and every tool mentioned, however, is described in 
detail in Chapter XXI devoted to tools and equipment, and 



THE MOLD 



the reader is referred to that chapter or to the glossary, page 
288, for such information as may be necessary as to render 
the description more expHcit. 

Referring now to Fig. i, the pattern to be molded is shown 
at A. This is a rectangular block eight by five inches and 
five-eighths of an inch thick. It is to be molded in green sand 
in a snap flask, the two parts of which are shown at C and D. 
As the pattern is quite shallow the short sides are parallel. A 
deeper pattern will have a slight taper, to enable it to be with- 
drawn from the sand more readily. This taper is known as 
the draft. The lower portion of the mold, that contained in 
flask C, is known as the nowel or drag. The upper portion is 
called the cope. Fig. i also 
shows the usual arrangement 
of the molder's bench, com- 
prising the grating on which 
the actual work is done, the 
sand bin below it, and the 
tool rack above, on which is 
shown the usual equipment 
of molder's tools, consisting 
of rammers, brush, riddle, bel- 
lows, and a tool box contain- 
ing his small tools. 




1 



M 




board pattern on board 

Fig. 2. — Arrangement of Pattern and Flask ox Mold-board. 



In making the mold, the molder first places his mold-board 
on the bench, with the cleats on the board extending away 
from him, this being the most convenient position for rolling 
over the drag. The pattern A is placed on the mold-board as 
shown in Fig. 2, and the drag of the flask placed over it with 
the pins projecting downward on either side of the board. An 



4 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

iron band H is slipped inside the flask and rests on lugs or 
ears F, having slots cut in it to permit it to slip over these lugs. 
It is important that there be plenty of sand over the pattern 
when the mold is complete, not only to prevent the bottom 
board from burning but to hold the metal in the mold. In the 
present case, the pattern being shallow, there is no doubt on 
this score, but with a deeper pattern the molder will place his 
strike across the top of the drag and thus ascertain the distance 
between the top of the pattern and the edge of the flask, and 
govern his selection of the flask accordingly. Being assured 
that there will be a sufficient depth of sand over the pattern, 
sand is sifted on the pattern as it lies on the mold-board by 
means of the riddle until the pattern is completely covered. 
The molder then tucks the sand around the edges of the pat- 
tern with his fingers, but does not press it down on top of the 
pattern unless there is some special reason for so doing. The 
drag is next shoveled full of sand and heaped high. The sand 
is then rammed around the inside of the flask with the peen or 
sharp end of the rammers. The rammer is held at this time 
with the hidt inclining toward the center of the flask, so that 
the blow is somewhat outward in direction, compressing the 
sand at the edges of the mold. More sand is then shoveled 
on to the flask, the rammers are reversed, and the entire sur- 
face of the mold rammed. After ramming, the surplus sand is 
scraped off the mold by means of the strike. 

In order that the mold will bear firmly at all points on the 
bottom-board, which is next placed on what is now the top of the 
drag, loose sand is thrown on the mold and the bottom-board 
placed over it and rubbed to a firm bearing. Were this not 
done, and should there exist any space between the bottom- 
board and the mold, the pressure of the iron when poured 
might cause the mold to break or cause a distortion of the 
casting. After placing the bottom-board, the drag is rolled 
over, so as to bring the pattern, and also the joint or pin side 
of the flask, to the top, as shown in Fig. i . If the sand has been 
properly rammed, a perfect joint can be made by rubbing the 
palm of the hand over the surface of the nowel. If the ram- 



THE MOLD 5 

ming has been imperfectly done, the sand should be tucked 
around the pattern with the fingers. The surface of the drag, 
or joint, is next brushed ofif with a soft brush or blown off with 
the bellows, the former method being preferred as it leaves the 
joint in better condition to receive the parting sand. Parting 
sand is now thrown over the joint to insure a good separation 
of the cope and drag, any excess sand being blown from the 





Fig. 3. — I'i^kningtheSand against 
THE Sides of the Flask. 



Fig. 4. — Butt-ramming the 
Surface of the Mold. 



pattern as it would cause the casting to have a rough surface. 
A small amount, however, will do no harm and will prevent 
the sand in the cope from adhering to the pattern. 

The cope D is next placed on the drag, the two parts of the 
flask being kept in their proper relation by means of the pins 
on the drag fitting into the ears on the cope. The iron band H 
is placed in the cope, although with this type of pattern, often 
called a flat-back — that is, a pattern molded entirely in the 
drag, and with a flat surface at the joint — it is not altogether 
necessary as there is no side pressure to be resisted. It may be 
stated here that these bands are necessary only in snap-flask 
work. The gate-stick which forms the hole through which 



6 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

the metal is poured into the mold is next placed in position, 
being driven down a slight distance in the sand of the drag. 
In ramming, it is important that the sand should be firmly 
rammed around the edges of the flask with the peen end of the 
rammer in order that it will withstand the side pressure of the 
molten metal. Care should also be used to keep the peen 
end of the rammer not less than one and one-quarter 
inches away from the pattern when ramming, as the sand 
must be porous enough to allow the gases to escape when the 
metal is poured into the mold. A mold can be rammed too 
hard and it also can be rammed too soft. The proper degree 
of firmness can be learned only by experience. 

The gate-stick is withdrawn from the sand and the cope 
is next lifted from the drag and placed at one side as shown 
in Fig. I. Any imperfections left on the cope which are not 
desired, are smoothed off with the slicker. These imperfections 
consist of excrescences on the mold due to holes or other imper- 
fections in the pattern. In finishing the mold the cope should 
be perfected before the pattern is drawn from the drag, as in 
case of damage to the cope the sand can be knocked out and 
the cope rammed up a second time, whereas this would be im- 
possible had the pattern been removed from the drag. 

The hole left by the gate-stick is beveled over at the joint 
so that the molten iron entering the mold will not wash sand 
in with it. The hole left by the gate-stick at the top of the 
cope is reamed out to a bell-shape to facilitate pouring of the 
metal. The sand around the pattern is next dampened by 
water squeezed from the sivab, which is passed gently around 
the edges of the pattern, care being taken to prevent the water 
from running on the pattern, which if constantly repeated, 
would cause the pattern to swell and become distorted. The 
object of wetting, or boshing, the sand around the pattern is 
to cause the various grains of sand to cohere and to prevent 
the sand from breaking when the pattern is withdrawn. The 
pattern is withdrawn by means of the draw-nail, which is 
driven into the pattern. The molder grasps the draw-nail with 
his left hand and, by means of a rapping-iron, jars the pattern 



THE MOLD 7 

loose in sand by striking the draw-nail a few sharp blows, 
first on one side and then on the other, close to the pattern. 
He then lifts the pattern vertically upward, using the draw- 
nail as a handle, at the same time rapping it gently with his 
rapping-iron. When the pattern has been lifted to a point 
where the molder can feel that it is free from the sand, he 
balances it and moves it up and down slightly to make sure 
that it is entirely free and then with a quick motion lifts it 
directly upward entirely out of the mold. It is important 
that the pattern be drawn straight upward, as the slightest 
sidewise motion will break the edges of the mold at the joint, 
making necessary expensive and more or less unsatisfactory 
repairs. The pattern being drawn, any imperfections in the 
mold or breaks at the joint are repaired with the slicker. 

All imperfections having been repaired, a channel is cut 
in the sand from the impression in the nowel left by the gate- 
stick, to the mold. This channel is known as the gate or sprue 
and is made with the sprue- cutter. It is shown at 5. At £ a 
cavity is hollowed out in the cope, being known as a cleaner. 
Any dirt which may be washed through the gate with the iron 
will tend to rise to the surface and be caught in the cleaner 
and thus be prevented from passing into the mold. 

These various operations having been completed, the mold 
is closed, that is, the cope is placed on the drag, the pins on the 
drag fitting into the ears on the cope bringing the two halves 
of the mold into the same relation they bore to each other 
when they were rammed up. The mold is then placed on the 
floor at a point convenient for pouring metal into it and the 
fastenings on the flask are loosened, the flask opened up, and 
removed from the mold. Weights as shown in Fig. 5 are 
placed on top of the cope to hold it down firmly on the drag 
while the metal is being poured into it and to prevent the 
metal from working its way out of the mold through the 
joint. At this point, the importance of striking the sand 
evenly from the top of the cope becomes evident, for, should 
the weight not bear evenly at all points on the surface of the 
cope, the pressure of the iron in the mold will lift the cope 



8 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



away from the drag on the side on which the weight does not 
bear, and allow the iron to flow out at the joint, this being 
known as a run-out. Furthermore, if the weight does not 
bear all over the cope, a "strained casting" or one thicker than 
desired will result, often causing the rejection of the casting. 
The molds are placed on the floor for pouring as close together 




Fig. 5. — Molds Weighted for Pouring. 

as possible as shown in Fig. 5, only enough room being left 
between the different rows of molds to permit the molder to 
pass with his ladle. Here again the importance of proper 
weighting is evident, since the molder is in serious danger of 
being burned in the event of a break-out while pouring. 



Molding a Split Pattern 

Where the pattern is of such shape that it would be incon- 
venient or impossible to mold it with the pattern entirely in 
the drag, a split pattern is employed. Such a pattern is shown 



THE MOLD 9 

in Fig. 6 and the mold made from this pattern in Fig. 7. This 
mold also illustrates the use of green-sand cores. One half the 
mold is in the drag and the other half in the cope. The line 
B, Fig. 6, on which the pattern is separated is known as the 
parting. Referring now to Fig. 6, the method of molding is 
shown. The mold board / is placed as was the case for the 
rectangular, one-piece pattern described above and the drag 
half of the pattern D is placed as shown on the mold board with 



PATTERN ON MOLDBOARD 




PATTERN IN COPE 



SIDE VltW OF PATTERN 






1 




_X 


l_o_ijjLy 


,p 


(" 




r" 




y 


-^ ^C^l 


^ 


4 


i ,uu u il 


IL 


1 




r 
^0 












^ 




5^ 







TOP OF PATTERN 









<^ <^ 


^ <^ 


<^ ^ 


H 


H 


H 

Pockets 


<g> <^ 


^ <^ 


^ 'S> 







Fig. 6. — Method of Molding a Split Pattern. 



the parting down. The drag of the flask with its iron band L 
is placed in position exactly as was the case with the pattern 
described above. Sand is next riddled on to the pattern and 
tucked down with the fingers into the pockets between the 
ribs R and the ends S and laid up against the side of the pat- 
tern. The drag is then rammed up as in the first case, the 
bottom-board placed, rubbed to a bearing, and the drag turned 
over. 

On removing the mold-board, the joint is made by rubbing 
the sand from around the pattern with the palm of the hand. 
If the sand has been properly tucked down in the pockets and 
around the sides of the pattern, there is no need of using a 



10 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



trowel. If this has not been done and the sand is too soft 
around the pattern, fresh sand must be tucked in and sHcked 
with the trowel. The joint being made, the cope half of the 
pattern is placed on the drag half, as shown at M, Fig. 6, and 
parting sand is dusted on the sand joint. In order that the 
cope and drag halves of the pattern will align properly, dowel 
pins are provided in the cope portion as shown at C, Fig. 7, 
which fit in holes in the drag at D. The cope of the flask is 




Fig. 7. — Mold Made from F"ig. 6. 

then set, as shown at M, Fig. 6, with the iron band N inside 
of it. In order to strengthen the green-sand cores, E, the 
nails P, Fig. 6, are placed in position. These are necessary, as 
the sand has not sufficient strength to sustain itself in deep 
pockets, such as we have here, and would break of its own 
weight when the pattern is withdrawn. The nails are placed 
after about one-half inch of sand has been riddled into these 
pockets in the pattern. The nails are wet and are set heads 
down in the corners of the pockets. 

The gate-stick is next placed, sand is riddled into the cope, 
tucked down around the nails and pattern, and the cope is 



THE MOLD II 

rammed up. It should be remembered when ramming, that 
after having peened between the sides of the flask and the 
pattern, and the mold is being rammed with the butt of the 
rammer, that the same blow struck over the top of the pattern 
will pack the sand harder there than it will the sand alongside 
of the pattern, due to the fact that there is a smaller body of 
sand to absorb the shock of the blow. As the molten iron fills 
the mold, it drives ahead of it to the highest parts of the mold, 
the gases and steam generated in the mold. If the sand has 
been rammed too hard over the pattern, these gases may have 
ditftculty in escaping through the sand and, being pocketed 
in the mold, will expand and force the iron back through the 
gate, leaving an imperfect surface in the casting. It is essen- 
tial, therefore, in ramming, that the blows struck over the 
pattern shall be soniewhat lighter than those struck on the 
sand alongside the pattern. 

The cope being rammed up and struck ofif, loose sand is 
thrown on top of the cope, the gate-stick is removed, and 
the mold-board rubbed down on the cope in a similar manner 
to the bottom-board on the drag. At this point, the mold is 
vented with a vent-wire, provided a close-grained molding sand 
has been used, which is not permeable enough to permit the 
ready escape of gases through it. The venting is done by 
pricking the sand full of holes over the top of the pattern. 
To vent a mold properly, it is essential that the molder be 
able to carry in his mind the shape of the pattern, and he 
should trace in the sand the outline of the pattern, as it lies in 
the flask. Care should be taken not to drive the vent-wire 
into the pattern, as this will damage the pattern and cause 
imperfect castings. After venting, the mold-board is placed 
and the cope is lifted from the drag and laid on its back on 
the board. 

The pattern is next boshed and is then removed from the 
mold by means of a draw-nail. It is essential that the mold- 
board be rubbed to a firm bearing on the top of the cope, other- 
wise, in driving the draw-nail into the pattern, the pattern 
will be driven down into the back of the cope, and in this case, 



12 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

when the cope is turned on its side after the pattern is with- 
drawn, there would be danger of the sand in the back of the 
cope sliding out and ruining the mold. 

The parts of the pattern in the cope and drag being drawn, 
the mold is finished with the trowel or slicker, the gate in the 
cope is reamed out at the top, and the gate is cut in the drag 
from the impression of the gate-stick to the ribs in the mold, 
as they form the deepest parts. (See F, Fig. 7.) After cutting 
the cleaner G in the cope, the mold is closed, set on the floor, 
and weighted ready for pouring. 

Molding a Split Pattern with a Web Center 

In Fig. 8 is shown a pattern somewhat similar to that in 
Fig. 6, with the exception that there is a web A at the center. 
The green-sand pockets in the mold formed by Fig. 6, are in 
this case cut ofif by this web. The molding of this pattern is 
similar to the operation of molding the pattern shown in Fig. 6. 
The portion of the pattern with the web is molded in the drag, 
with two bands H inside the flask. The principal difference 
in the operation of molding is in the placing of the nails which 
strengthen the green-sand cores. After the pattern has been 
placed on the mold-board, sand is riddled over it until it has 
a depth of about three-eighths of an inch in the pockets of the 
pattern, after which nails of the correct length are wet or 
clay-washed and set with the heads down in corners of the 
pockets. Sand is then riddled on the pattern, tucked down, and 
the flask rammed up as usual. The nails are set in the green- 
sand cores of the drag to hold the pockets down and to support 
the corners, since, when the drag part of the pattern is rapped 
and drawn, the pocket of sand may be cracked away from the 
drag and when the melted iron is poured into the mold it will 
enter the crack and float the sand against the green-sand 
cores of the cope, thus spoiling the casting. The nails pre- 
vent this. 

Molding the cope of the pattern shown in Fig. 8, is carried 
out in the same manner as was the pattern in Fig. 6. In pat- 



THE MOLD 



13 



terns having pockets too deep to allow the use of nails, wooden 
rods or soldiers are used. These must be well soaked with 
water before using, inasmuch as dry soldiers will absorb 
moisture from the sand and swell, thereby cracking the mold. 
After soaking, the soldiers should be dipped in clay wash to 
enable them to hold to the sand. 

Too much emphasis cannot be laid on the fact that it is 
possible to ram a mold too firmly over the pattern. The proper 
degree of firmness can be learned only by experience, but a 
test can be made by applying pressure with the fingers to the 
finished mold. The face of the average small mold, prop- 



SIDE VIEW OF PATTERN 



PATTERN ON MOLDBOARD 



zy^ 





TOP VIEW OF PATTERN 



F 



Fig. 8. — Molding a Split Pattern with a Web in the Center. 



erly rammed, will yield slightly to pressure. If it is ram- 
med so hard that it is unyielding to finger pressure, it is 
certain that the gases will be unable to escape and a casting 
full of blow-holes will result. 

We have described above three simple molding operations 
in green sand. They are typical of all green-sand work, ex- 
cept that when large castings are made, modifications in the 
practice are necessary. Special arrangements must be made 
for strengthening certain parts of the molds, and also for 
venting, as will be described in later chapters. The bulk of 
foundry molding is done in green sand, and therefore many of 



14 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

the later chapters will take up in detail the making of molds 
in this material, describing the methods to be employed and 
the precautions to be taken. 

While green-sand molding is the most common, there are 
other varieties of molds employed for special purposes, which 
are also described in detail later in the book. Thus there is a 
skin-dried mold which is a green-sand mold with the surface 
baked by means of an oil or gas torch or a fire basket ; the dry- 
sand mold which is a green-sand mold baked in an oven, and 
which is employed for making steel castings and in other situ- 
ations where a particularly accurate casting is desired; the 
loam mold built up from a mixture of sand and clay, backed 
with brick work, employed for large castings where, the expense 
of pattern work is to be avoided; the chill mold made of iron, 
used for car wheels and other castings in which a particularly 
hard, close-grained surface is desired. These various molds 
all have their uses which will be enumerated together with 
the method of making them at the proper point in this book. 
For the present, however, we will confine ourselves to the 
further consideration of green-sand molds. 



CHAPTER II 

MOLDING IRREGULARLY SHAPED PATTERNS— COPING DOWN 

—MOLDING IN A THREE-PART FLASK— THE USE OF 

A FALSE CHEEK— MOLDING GEARS 

The patterns described in the previous chapter have been 
molded on a plain mold-board, cope side down, and have been 
rammed up in the drag. The joint has been made by simply 
brushing off the sand or slicking it with the trowel, which is 
all that is required with a pattern having a plain cope side, 
which allows it to lie on the mold-board while being molded. 
In Fig. 9, at C, D, E, and F, are shown patterns which it would 
be impossible to place on a plain mold-board and ram up in 
the drag, since they would not remain in position on the mold- 
board to cause the desired portion to come in the cope. To 
mold a pattern of this character, it is necessary to cope down, 
in order to bring the proper portions of the pattern in the cope 
and drag respectively, and also to permit the pattern to be 
drawn from the mold. 

Referring to Fig. 9, the method of molding these four 
patterns is shown. None of these patterns will lie in the cor- 
rect position on the mold-board and. therefore, a rough 
bottom-board is placed on the bench and on that an upset, a 
wooden frame of the required size and depth, is placed. The 
opening in the lower side, adjoining the bottom-board, is a 
trifle larger than that in the top side. The upset is usually 
attached to the bottom-board with screws. Sand is riddled 
into the upset and is rammed in the same manner as a flask, 
and struck off level with the top. The patterns to be molded 
are placed on the sand in any desirable position. The sand is 
then dug out under them, so as to allow them to sink in the 
sand to the same depth that it is desired they shall project 
into the cope when this is rammed later. The sand is then 

15 



i6 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



roughly formed around them and a Httle parting sand dusted 
on. In Fig. 9, at A, is shown the bottom-board with the 
upset B attached to it, and the sand formed in place as de- 
scribed. The drag of the flask is next placed over the upset 
and is rammed up in the same manner as would be patterns 
laid on a plain mold-board as described in Chapter I. After 
rolling the drag over, this frame of wood with the sand in it, 
is lifted oft' and the parting is made to follow the shape of the 




Fig. 9. — Molding Irregularly Shaped Patterns with a Green-sand 

Match. 



pattern in the drag, thus causing the sand in the cope to ex- 
tend down on each side, so that the lower side of the pattern 
will be formed in the drag and the upper side in the cope. 

The line of parting having been determined in this manner, 
the sand is shaken out of the upset and the frame removed 
from the board. The frame is then placed on the drag in the 
same manner as would be the cope, the side with the small 
opening being down. The frame is rammed up in a similar man- 
ner to a cope and the sand struck off level with the top. The 
bottom-board is then rubbed to a bearing and screwed to the 



MOLDING IRREGULARLY SHAPED PATTERNS 1 7 

frame. The upset is then Hfted off, being now what is termed 
a green-sand match, as shown at A, B. It is evident that the 
patterns C, D, E, and i^'can easily be replaced in their respec- 
tive positions in the match. 

The joint of the drag is then blown ofif with the bellows, 
fresh parting sand is dusted on, and the cope is rammed up and 
lifted off in the ordinary manner. The cope is shown at G. 
The joint is now blown off to free it of loose sand, the patterns 
are boshed and drawn from the drag, after which the mold is 
finished and the gate / cut to carry the iron to each one of the 
impressions left by the four patterns. 

The casting made from pattern F is to have a hole in it at 
L. This hole will be formed in the casting by means of a core 
which is shown vSet in position in the drag at K. The position 
of the core is determined by means of the core-print L on the 
pattern. This core-print will form holes in the cope and drag 
as shown at M. A vent-wire is run up through the cope from 
this core-print to permit the escape of gas from the core. The 
venting of the core itself is fully described in Chapter XIII, 
devoted to cores. The mold is now ready for closure, weighting, 
and pouring. 

The green-sand match may be used many times for ram- 
ming up the drag if care is exercised in handling it and in 
placing the patterns. In many cases, where but one casting 
is wanted from a pattern, the cope is rammed up in the same 
manner as an upset, and the pattern is bedded down in it and 
the drag then rammed up. After the joint has been made, the 
cope is knocked out and is again rammed up to form the cope 
of the mold. 

Molding a Hand Wheel 

Let us consider the operation of molding a hand wheel, 
the rim of which is set some distance forward of the hub. 
The wheel is laid on a level mold-board and strips of wood, 
one-half the thickness of the rim, are placed under the drag of 
the flask, in order to raise it so that one-half of the rim will 
come in the cope. Sand is rammed around the pattern, and 

2 



l8 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

when the drag is rolled over and the mold-board removed, the 
rim of the wheel is found to be above the joint of the drag, by 
just the thickness of the wooden strips, this operation being 
termed upsetting the drag. The joint is then made and, as 
the hub of the pattern is lower than the rim, there will be 
quite a body of sand to lift out. The arms of the wheel being 
rounded on the edges, will add more. The parting is made by 
removing sand until the point is visible where the pattern 
begins to round under. After the joint has been made and 
parting sand has been rubbed on, some riddled sand is laid by 
hand on the slanting parting in order to make the parting 
sand remain in place. If the molding sand is riddled directly 
on the steep parting, it will slide down and carry the parting 
sand with it and the cope will stick to the drag and break the 
mold. 

There will be a considerable body of sand hanging from 
the face of the cope due to the recession of the hub from the 
rim of the wheel, and it is necessary to support this by means 
of a soldier, a piece of wood in this case, about eight inches 
long, one inch wide, and half an inch thick. These soldiers 
are placed, after being first dipped in the wash pot, 
by scraping the sand from the pattern adjoining the core- 
print in the hub, so that there is about five-sixteenths inch 
thickness of sand outside the core-print. One soldier is placed 
between the core-print and the slanting parting and another 
soldier is placed on the opposite side of the print with a nail 
quartering from the soldier each way. This gives four supports 
for the sand which is firmly tucked around them and rammed 
in the center, using a gate-stick for a rammer. The cope is 
then rammed up as usual, the gate-stick being set to gate into 
the rim. 

Coping Down Irregular Patterns 

Referring to the patterns in Fig. lo, P is a pattern which 
can be molded in the same flask with Q. Both these patterns 
require coping down in order to permit the pattern being drawn 
from the mold. The upset is rammed full of sand and each 



MOLDING IRREGULARLY SHAPED PATTERNS 



19 



pattern is bedded so as to throw it into the cope. The pattern 
P is placed in the upset in the position shown in Fig. 9, being 
set somewhat deeper than the thickness of the plate connecting 
the two lugs. It is parted as described above down to the 
middle of the bosses on the lugs, while the plate part of Q is 
placed in the upset to the depth of the plate containing the 
two square holes. The drag is rammed up, rolled over with 
the upset, and the upset removed. The joint is made and, when 




Fig. 10.- 



-Odd-shaped Patterns which are Molded by Coping Down 
IN Drag or in Cope. 



ramming the cope, soldiers are used as described above, for 
lifting the sand around the lugs while the hanging sand over 
Q should take care of itself with a properly arranged parting. 
Pattern R requires a flask by itself. In molding, the end 
which is foremost in the illustration is thrown into the cope 
above the joint, the other end of the pattern being kept below 
the joint. This pattern is upset in the cope and coped down 
from the drag, requiring a very irregular joint. The two 
square holes in the end are formed by green-sand cores. It 
is unnecessary to place nails in these cores to hold them as, if 



20 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



they are well boshed and the pattern carefully drawn, they 
will remain in better shape in the mold than if nailed. Often 
nails in small green-sand cores do more harm than good, as in 
rapping the pattern, when drawing it, the nails in the core 
hold while the sand moves, thus breaking the core. Patterns 
6' and T may be molded in the same flask and will require 
some coping down. The remaining patterns can be molded 
together as they can be best arranged, three or four in a flask, 
according to the ideas of the molder. 



Molding in a Three-Part Flask 

Fig. 1 1 shows a sheave together with the method of mold- 
ing it in a three-part flask. When molded in the three-part 
flask, the pattern is laid on the mold-board in the center of the 




ry::! Dragy -^^ 



Fig. II. — Molding a Sheave in a Three-part Flask. 

cheek D, as shown at C, the parting of the pattern being at E. 
The cheek is rammed up around the pattern, which operation 
tends to force the two halves of the pattern apart and thus 
make the sheave thicker than desired. To prevent this, the 
weight F is placed on top of the pattern, while the cheek is 



MOLDING WITH A FALSE CHEEK 



21 



being rammed. After the joint in the cheek is made, the drag 
M is placed and rammed up, nails being placed as shown. The 
cheek and drag are rolled over together and the second parting 
is made, after which the cope is rammed up, nails being set 
as shown at G. The cope is lifted ofT and the portion H of 
the pattern drawn, after which the cheek is lifted off, set 
aside, and the portion of pattern / drawn. After the core is 
set, the gate is arranged as shown at / in the cope. 

Molding with a False Cheek 

The method of molding with a false cheek is shown in Fig. 
12. The pattern is placed on the mold-board as is shown in 
Fig. II, an upset often being used instead of a cheek. After 




Fig. 12. — Molding a Sheave in a Two-part Flask with a False Cheek. 



ramming up the cheek, removing the sand, and forming the 
parting on the line K, Fig. I2, the cope is placed on the cheek 
or upset, being raised by strips one-half the thickness of the 
pattern, so that, in the finished mold, half the pattern will be 
in the cope and the other half in the drag. The arrangement 



22 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

is the same at this point as shown in Fig. ii, at L. The board 
is rubbed to a bearing on top of the cope which then is rolled 
over, the strips removed, and a parting made at the line N, 
Fig. 12. The drag is placed and rammed up, the bottom- 
board is rubbed to a bearing, and the drag lifted ofT. Consider- 
ing now the flask A", Fig. 12, as a whole, the false cheek is 
shown between the lines K and A^, the cope being rammed up 
on one side of it and the drag on the other. The drag being 
lifted, one-half the pattern is drawn, the parting being on the 
line E. The mold is finished in the drag and the drag replaced, 
the whole fiask rolled, and the cope lifted. Bearing in mind 
that there is only the sand forming the outside of the sheave 
groove to hold the cope part of the pattern up, the cope portion 
of the pattern is carefully drawn from the sand. The core is 
set, the cope finished, and the gate is punched and the basin 
made as shown at /. 

Molding a Double Groove Sheave in a Three- 
Part Flask 

Frequently it is necessary to mold a double-groove sheave 
when only a three-part flask is available. The method of 
doing this is shown in Fig. 13, being a combination of the two 
methods above described. The pattern is laid on the mold- 
board and the cheek F rammed up, after which the cope G is 
made. The cheek and the cope are rolled over and the false 
cheek H made with a parting at X, after which the drag is 
made. The drag is lifted, together with a portion of the pat- 
tern L, to which are fastened the ribs AI. This portion of 
the pattern is drawn from the drag, which is finished and re- 
placed. The entire flask is then rolled over and the cope lifted 
together with the cope portion of the pattern. After draw- 
ing the pattern the solid cheek is lifted from the drag and 
the middle part of the pattern drawn. The pattern is parted 
on the lines C and D. The mold is now finished and 
closed. It may be poured either through the hub, as was 
the first sheave, or it may be gated. If the grooves in the 



MOLDING IN A THREE-PART FLASK 



23 



sheave are very deep, they should be supported with nails 
as shown in Figs. 11 and 12. 

At times, the sheaves are molded by using a pattern with 
a core-print around it and making a set of cores in a core-box. 
After the pattern is drawn from the mold, the cores which 
form the grooves in the edge of the sheave are set. Such a core 
would occupy the position of the false cheek KN, Fig. 12. 

If it is necessary to mold a sheave from a solid pattern, 
that is, one without a parting, the false cheek may be formed on 




Fig. 13. — Molding a Double Groove Sheave in a Three-part Flask, 
Using a False Cheek. 



two pieces of paper, cut to the shape of the circumference of 
the sheave, a parting being made by each sheet of paper. 
After the cope is lifted, the pieces of paper, having the cheek 
built on them, are pulled apart, thus drawing the sand side- 
ways out of the groove. The pattern is then lifted from the 
mold and the two parts of the cheek are pushed together in 
their original form. 

Molding Solid Shot 



Fig. 14 shows the arrangement of the patterns and gates 
in molding solid shot. The four patterns are rammed up in 
the drag, with the bottom of the patterns flush with the sur- 
face. Shrinkheads or risers C and a pouring gate D are formed 



24 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



in the cope. After lifting off the cope, whirl-gates F are cut 
from the pouring gate to cause the iron to enter the mold 
tangentially. This imparts to the iron entering the mold a 
swirling motion, which drives the dirt collected in the mold 



5 



Uat( 
D 



Shot 




Shot 




Joint of Shot mold 




PATTERNS DRAWN AND GATED 




o) To 





o) (o 




COPE SHOWING RISERS 



Fig. 14. — Mold for Solid Shot. 



toward the center and enables it, therefore, to rise in the 
shrinkhead, thus leaving a clean casting. As the shrinkhead 
is made large enough to supply molten iron to the body of the 
casting when it cools and shrinks, a clean, sound casting, free 
from blowholes and impurities, is secured. 



gear molding 25 

Gear Molding 

Gear blanks, that is, the casting in which gear teeth are to 
be cut, must be free from dirt, blow-holes, and other imperfec- 
tions to a greater degree than the usual run of castings. In 
molding gear blanks, the mold is usually arranged so that the 
iron will enter at the hub in order that the face in which the 
teeth are to be cut shall be as far away as possible from the 
iron which first enters the mold, and which may carry with it 
dust or dirt which will render imperfect the face of the casting. 

In molding cast gears, that is, gears with the teeth cast on 
them, the sand must be selected with regard to the size of the 
teeth; the finer the teeth, of course, the finer the grade of sand 
that must be used. The sand having the smallest grains will 
naturally be selected for those gears having the smallest teeth, 
and as gears with larger teeth have to be molded, coarser- 
grained sand can be used. 

The operation of molding a set of gears will now be de- 
scribed. The patterns being in position on the mold-board, 
and the drag of the flask placed, sand is riddled over the pat- 
terns with a No. 12 riddle. The sand is carefully tucked in 
the teeth in the gear pattern and the drag rolled over and the 
joint made, coping down between the arms of the gear as pre- 
viously described, and the parting sand dusted on. It will be 
assumed that there are a number of gears to be made from the 
patterns, so therefore, after making the joint, the cope is 
placed with an iron band fitted to the inside, and is rammed 
up. The bottom-board is rubbed down on top of the cope, 
which is lifted off, placed at one side, and the snap flask re- 
moved. The cope part of the flask is then replaced on the 
drag and the regular cope is rammed up, lifted ofl", and set 
on its side. With a small brass tube, a hole is punched 
through the cope from the joint side, in the center of the mold 
of the hubs of the gears in the cope. After having lifted off the 
cope, the patterns are boshed, rapped, and drawn. 

The process of rapping and drawing a gear pattern is some- 
what different from the process of rapping and drawing an 



26 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

ordinary pattern. To rap a gear pattern sideways would 
distort the teeth and thus cause the finished gears to bind on 
each other when put in service. Furthermore, rapping the 
pattern sideways would tend to break the teeth in the sand 
from the body of sand back of them. When the pattern is 
withdrawn from the mold, these broken teeth would fall and 
make an imperfect casting. In rapping gear patterns, a raw- 
hide mallet is used and the pattern itself is tapped slightly, 
just enough to jar it free from the sand but not enough to 
distort or crack the teeth. 

To draw the pattern, a pair of tweezers are used, being 
placed in the drawhole of the pattern and spread apart so as 
to fill the hole. Lifting on the tweezers and drawing the pat- 
tern with his left hand, the molder gently taps the pattern with 
his mallet and as soon as it feels free of the sand, lifts it clear 
of the mold with a quick vertical motion. Should any sidewise 
motion be given the pattern while drawing it and a tooth 
thereby knocked down, it will be economy to knock the mold 
out of the flask and make it over a second time, rather than 
attempt to patch up the teeth. 

Care must be taken in tucking the teeth of the pattern to 
have the sand uniformly firm. Should soft spots be left in the 
sand forming the teeth, bunches will be formed between the 
teeth of the gear, and it will be rough. Should the sand be 
rammed too hard, the teeth will stick to the pattern and be 
broken. Hot iron must be used in pouring in order that the 
gear shall come out of the mold with sharp, clean teeth. A 
facing comprising one part of bolted seacoal and fourteen parts 
of fine tempered sand should be used between the teeth, other- 
wise difficulty will be experienced in cleaning the casting. 

To return now to the cope which was first rammed up and 
set aside. This is known as the false cope and is to be used as 
a match-plate on which the patterns are laid when the second 
mold is made. This match or false cope is placed on top of 
the bench and the cope part of the flask closed around it, with 
the joint up. The patterns are placed in the impressions in the 
cope, the drag put in position, and sand riddled in on top of 



GEAR MOLDING 



27 



the cope in the same manner that the drag was made for the 
first mold. The false cope and drag are then rolled over to- 
gether, the cope removed and set aside as in the first case, and 
the true cope made and finished as before. The use of the 
false cope in this case is to avoid making the joint every time 
a mold is made. Instead of using a false cope, an upset may 
be employed, having guides which fit the pins on the drag of 
the flask. 

At E in Fig. 15, is shown a horn gate. The use of this is 
described in Chapter XV. After the drag has been made, the 
horn gate patterns are placed in position as shown and the 




Fig. 15. — Method of Molding (.tEar Wheels, Illustrating Use 
OF Horn Gate. 

A, Cope of mold- B, drag of mold with pattern drawn; C, drag of mold with horn gate 
pattern set; D, opening of horn gate in cope. 



cope is set on the drag and rammed up, the sand being tucked 
in under the horn gates. These gates are larger at one end than 
at the other, and after being boshed, can be removed from the 
sand by letting them describe a sort of semicircle as they are 
drawn. A gate is cut in the center of the cope and is connected 
with each of the horn gates leading to the various gear molds. 
-The horn gates are placed so that the iron will flow to near 
the center of the gear. The green-sand cores in the molds 



28 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



are vented by means of a fine vent-wire before the patterns 
are drawn. 

Molding Gears and Splitting Them 

Fig. i6 illustrates the method of molding and splitting a 
bevel gear. The pattern is shown resting on the cope, and in 
molding is placed on the mold-board in the same position. 
The drag is placed around it with the pins down. Sand is rid- 
dled into the drag, which is next heaped full and rammed up. 
The flask used in this case is a tight flask and remains on the 




Fig. i6. — Molding and Splitting a Bevel Gear. 



mold when the latter is poured, and therefore no iron band is 
required inside of it. Before heaping the sand into the drag, 
the riddled sand is tucked into the teeth of the gears. After 
the drag has been rammed, it is rolled over and the sand is 
scraped away from the pattern down to the ends of the teeth. 
In this case the teeth are formed on an angle on the face of the 
drag, and we are obliged to cope down to the ends of the 
teeth in forming the joint. 



MOLDING AND SPLITTING GEARS 29 

The cope is then made up, and after the mold has been 
tinished and parted, spHtting plates, shown at A, are set in the 
prints B in the mold of the hub in the drag. Pouring gates D 
are punched through the cope with a rod or tube of the proper 
diameter, and a pouring basin formed in the top of the cope. 
The following points may well be borne in mind in molding 
gears: In boshing a gear pattern avoid putting any excess of 
water on the mold, else it will be necessary to dry the pattern 
before using it again. Hard ramming on the point of a tooth 
makes a rounding instead of a sharp edge. A gear mold must . 
be rammed firmly to stand the strain of the molten metal and 
to keep the teeth from becoming fat. In winter the patterns 
should be warmed. At all times iron patterns should be 
smeared with barberry tallow mixed with naphtha. The tallow 
should be allowed to set until the naphtha has evaporated, 
when it may be applied to the pattern with a stiff brush. 
This will enable the pattern to be drawn from the sand so as to 
leave a perfect mold. Mending the teeth of small gear molds 
seldom pays. It is usually better to make the mold over. 



CHAPTER III 

FLOOR MOLDING 

The term floor molding is applied to work which is too 
large for the bench and which is molded either on the side 
floor or on the main floor of the foundry. The term is usually- 
applied to green-sand work. The patterns molded on the side 
floor are those which, while too large for the bench, can yet 
be handled by one or several men. Patterns molded on the 
main floor are usually those which require the services of a 
crane for handling the completed mold. Floor molding re- 
quires somewhat different equipment from bench molding and 
the procedure is also different. The castings being larger, the 
question of pouring so as to secure uniformity in the finished 
casting, without setting up undue strains in the metal, is also 
important. The matter of pouring will be discussed at the 
end of this chapter. 

In order to illustrate the practice of floor molding, we will 
consider the molding the legs of a lathe bed, shown in Fig. 17. 
In the first place, a rigid flask is used instead of a snap flask. 
This is a frame of wood C solidly nailed together, with tie- 
rods extending across it as shown. Furthermore, while the 
sand in a small flask, say up to fifteen inches square, properly 
tempered, will support itself when lifted with the cope, it will 
break away from the flask and fall when the flask is lifted if 
the latter is of greater area. Therefore some provision must 
be made to support the sand in the cope in the larger flasks 
which are used in floor work. This provision takes the form 
of ribs, such as are shown at E in the cope of the flask in the 
background of Fig. 17. These ribs or bars extend from one 
side to the other of the cope, being firmly nailed in place. At 
intervals, to keep them from being sprung sidewise, are cross 
bars M known as chucks. This construction forms, in effect, 

30 



FLOOR MOLDING 



31 



a series of copes extending from side to side of the flask. In 
order to tie all of these copes together, and form one cope as a 
whole over the casting, the sand must extend under the bars 
and chucks; therefore, the bars are made about three-quarters 
of an inch less in depth than the depth of the cope. The pat- 
tern which is under consideration, is of the flat-back type, 
that is, no part of it will extend up into the cope. The bars 
then extend down to a uniform distance from the joint of the 




Fig. 17. — P.-iTTERN OF Lathe-bed Legs Laid on Mold-board Ready for 
Floor Molding. 



mold. Should the pattern be of such shape that it is necessary 
for it to extend into the cope, a portion of the bars would be 
cut away to permit the pattern to fit under them, and to allow 
a thickness of about three-quarters of an inch to an inch of 
sand to come between the pattern and the bottom of the bars. 
The sand is necessary not only to protect the bars from com- 
ing in contact with molten iron and burning, but should 
the wood be allowed to form a portion of the side of the mold, 
molten iron coming in contact with it would tend to boil and 



32 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

thus make an imperfect casting. The edges of the bars are 
chamfered to a narrow edge at the bottom, so as to divide the 
sand near the joint as Httle as possible. 

In molding the pattern shown in the illustration, the mold- 
board is first rubbed to a firm bearing in the sand of the floor, 
loose sand to a depth of about two inches first having been 
shoveled over the space where the molding is to be carried on. 
The pattern is placed on the board as shown and the drag of the 
flask set around it with the pin holes G down. Sand is riddled 
on the pattern and around it to a depth of about two inches 
and is scraped up and laid against the deep upright sides of 
the pattern until its entire surface is covered with riddled 
sand. Ten-penny nails, dipped in clay wash, are set point 
down, one in each corner of the pattern and the sand tucked 
around them. It is often advisable in a deep pattern of this 
character to vent the sand in the corners with a vent-wire. 
The sand is next shoveled in from the heap, the point of the 
shovel being placed close to the pattern, and the sand slid ofif 
gently into the flask, to avoid knocking the riddled sand away 
from the pattern. After the pattern is well covered in this 
manner, sand is shoveled in without further precaution to a 
depth of about five inches and rammed around the pattern. 
In ramming, the sand should be struck a sharp blow with the 
rammer rather than merely pushed down. In floor molding, 
the long-handled iron rammer is used and in this first operation 
is held peen down, the sand being rammed alongside the flask 
and around the edges of the pattern, care being used to strike 
not closer to the pattern than one inch. Especial care must 
be used when ramming the sand in the pockets not to strike 
the pattern or to ram the pockets too hard, which will prevent 
the easy escape of gases from the mold. After the sand has 
been rammed to a depth equal to the height of the pattern, it 
is vented with the vent-wire, and is often trodden down with 
the feet. A second lot of sand is then shoveled in and the sand 
outside the pattern is rammed with the butt end of the rammer 
and also rammed over that portion of the pattern where it lies 
the deepest. At this stage, the molder must use his own judg- 



FLOOR MOLDING 33 

ment as to how firmly the mold must be rammed and in time 
will be able to judge by the feeling of the sand under his ram- 
mer, whether or not the mold is rammed sufficiently hard. 
After second ramming, the flask is heaped full, trodden down, 
rammed with the butt end of the rammer, and struck ofT level 
with the top of the flask. Loose sand is then thrown on and the 
bottom-board rubbed to a bearing the same as in bench mold- 
ing. The board is then raised and the mold well vented, after 
which the board is replaced and fastened by means of clamps, 
which extend from under the mold-board to the top of the bot- 
tom-board, being made firm by wedges driven under the toes of 
the clamps. The mold is then rolled over preferably to a point 
back of where the molding was begun. However, should the 
foundry be cramped for room, the flask can be twisted around 
and lowered on its original bed, and the drag rubbed to a firm 
bearing on the floor, sand having previously been thrown 
there for the bottom-board to bed in. 

The clamps are now removed, together with the mold- 
board, and the molder assures himself that the pattern rests 
solidly on the sand in the flask. Occasionally, with a thin pat- 
tern, the pattern itself may be warped and on the removal of 
the mold-board, a portion of it spring up from the sand. In 
such a case, the spirit level should be placed on the pattern and 
weights used to hold the pattern level until the joint is made. 
After making the joint, parting sand is dusted on, the weights 
removed, and one-half inch of sand riddled over the joint. To 
locate the position of the gate and the risers which are set in the 
cope, balls of molding sand are placed in the position desired 
for the gate and risers to ascertain whether these positions will 
be clear of the bars and chucks of the cope, and after the joint 
of the flask and the pin holes have been cleaned, the cope is put 
in position, having been first wet or clay- washed. Some of the 
molding-sand balls will probably be found to come directly 
underneath a bar in the cope and the gate-stick and gaggers 
must be shifted accordingly. The gate-stick must be set far 
enough away from a thin pattern of this character, to avoid 
danger of the gate breaking into the mold when the casting is 
3 



34 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

poured. Gaggers (see Fig. 138, page 214) are next set. The 
gaggers should be of such size as to come close to the top 
of the bars, but they should not project above if it can be 
avoided. Gate-sticks and gaggers being in place, sand is 
riddled through a coarse riddle to a sufficient depth in the 
cope to permit it to be tucked firmly around the gaggers and 
between the pattern and the lower edge of the bars. In doing 
this, the molder places a hand on either side of the bar so 
that his fingers can push the sand underneath the bar from 
either side. The sand must be tucked firmly, otherwise 
soft places will be left in the mold which will cause trouble 
when it is poured. Sand is shoveled in next to a depth of 
about five inches, and rammed along each bar with the peen 
of the rammer. The peen is then held transversely to the 
bar and the sand cross-rammed. More sand is shoveled into 
the flask and is again peened, after which the flask is heaped 
with sand which is rammed between the bars with the butt 
end of the rammer. The loose sand is now struck off from the 
top of the flask with a wedge, special attention being given to 
the detection of any gaggers which may project above the 
bars. Should such a gagger be struck and loosened, the sand 
is immediately punched down alongside the gagger until it 
holds firm. 

The cope is then vented all over and the gate-sticks drawn, 
after which the cope is lifted off and placed on set-off boxes, 
that is, a box having ends and sides but no bottom or top. 
One edge of the flask is lowered on to these boxes, the other 
being raised in the position occupied by the drag in Fig. 17, 
being held up by a prop at the back. In this position the 
molder finishes it, by first feeling it all over to see that no soft 
spots have been left in tucking the bars, in which case they are 
repaired by first cutting up the sand slightly with the trowel 
and then pressing fresh sand into place and finishing it with 
the trowel. Should soft spots not be repaired, iron will force 
its way into them when the mold is poured and form excrescen- 
ces on the casting. The cope is finished in the usual m.anner, 
breaks in the sand being repaired, and shining spots in the 



FLOOR MOLDING 35 

sand which indicate the presence of gaggers too close to the 
face of the mold are filled in with fresh sand. The joint in the 
drag is next brushed off and the pattern boshed and rapped for 
drawing from the sand. 

Instead of using a draw-nail or a bar set in a hole in the 
pattern for rapping, which would assuredly damage a light 
pattern such as is shown, the joint is cut down in a number of 
places around the pattern and the butt end of a wedge placed in 
these cuts against the pattern. Light blows are struck with a 
hammer on the wedge until the pattern is freed from the sand. 
The sand is then built up at the spots where it was cut out 
and the pattern is drawn by means of eye-bolts screwed into 
the pattern. In drawing a pattern of the kind shown, in fact 
in drawing practically all patterns used in floor molding, two 
men are required, one at either end. These must lift the pat- 
tern at exactly the same time and each must be prepared to 
stop lifting at a signal from the other which is given when 
either notices any indication of the sand breaking on the edges 
of the mold as the pattern is lifted. When this happens, the 
sand is pressed back in place and slicked over with the trowel 
before the pattern is drawn any further. 

The pattern being drawn, the mold is carefully looked 
over for imperfections and breaks in the sand. As far as pos- 
sible, broken sand is carefully replaced with the fingers, pressed 
back into position and dampened slightly. The face of the 
mold is then finished with proper tools at this point, and the 
entire mold is gone over in a similar manner until all broken 
parts are repaired. Sprues are now cut from the upright gates 
into the mold and the mold is cleaned of all loose sand by 
means of the bellows and lifters. As any sand which will not 
blow off, will not wash off under the influence of molten iron 
flowing over it, the bellows afford an indication as to whether 
there are any loose parts of the mold which have been over- 
looked. 

On a thin mold of this character, it is advisable to sprinkle 
a light coating of talc over which the iron will run freely and a 
cooler iron can therefore be used in pouring. The sprues and 



36 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

gates are arranged so that the iron will enter the deeper parts 
of the mold and also at the feet. In a mold of this character, 
peg-gates (see Fig. 129, page 171) are advisable. Cores are next 
set and the mold is closed. Five men are required for this 
operation with a flask of this size, one at each corner of the 
fiask while the fifth looks in under the cope as it is closed on 
the drag to see that no part of the mold falls down. It is es- 
sential that all four men lift and lower the flask simultaneously, 
otherwise they may warp the flask and thus cause a portion 
of the mold to fall. The man who watches to see that this 
does not happen is called the "peeker." 

The mold is now clamped, that is, the cope is fastened to 
the drag by means of clamps as shown at K, Fig. 17. These 
U-shaped pieces of iron are set with the legs of the U projecting 
over the edges of the cope and drag respectively, being fast- 
ened firmly in position by means of wooden wedges L driven 
under the toes of the clamps. The usual method of wedging 
the clamps is to pry the clamps on to the wedge rather than 
drive the wedge home with a hammer which might, from the 
force of the blow, jar the sand down into the mold. 

Pouring Floor Molds 

In pouring this mold, two ladles are used. The one from 
which the iron is to flow to the deeper part of the mold is 
poured a little in advance of the other. As there is no part 
of the casting above the joint of the flask in the cope, the rising 
of the iron in the gate indicates when the mold is filled. In 
general, in pouring side floors, the same ladles are used as 
for pouring bench molds. A sufficient number of ladles, how- 
ever, are used to pour the entire mold at one time. This some- 
times requires six to eight ladles, pouring simultaneously at 
different gates in order that the iron may reach all parts of the 
mold in a fluid condition. A large wash sink is a typical 
casting requiring pouring of this character. In pouring from 
many ladles, the men all start and stop pouring at a given sig- 
nal, thus avoiding straining the casting which might occur were 



FLOOR MOLDING 37 

iron poured in the gate after the mold is filled, thus putting 
pressure, due to head, on the mold. Other classes of castings 
poured in this manner, include castings for cotton, woolen, and 
other light machinery. 

In pouring the light and heavy molds on the side floor, large 
ladles are often used holding from one hundred and fifty to 
three hundred pounds of iron, in which case several men are 
required to handle the ladle. Many castings made on the 
side floor may require several of these ladles. It is advisable 
to have available, in pouring a heavy casting, approximately 
the exact amount of iron required. Therefore, foundries are 
usually supplied with a number of ladles of varying sizes so 
that by a combination of sizes the required amount of iron 
may be brought to the mold. It often is necessary to pour 
one portion of the mold with very hot iron and another portion 
with slack or cooler iron. Different gates are therefore ar- 
ranged in which the two kinds of iron are poured from dif- 
ferent ladles. Such a case occurs when a casting has both 
light and heavy parts; the hotter iron is fed to the light part. 
It is evident from the foregoing, that floor molding requires 
that consideration be given to other points than the actual 
making of the mold. It is impossible in a book of this charac- 
ter to lay stress on all these points and the student is urged to 
observe the methods of more experienced molders when gating 
and pouring the various kinds of castings.. 

Molding Pulleys and Wheels on the Floor 

A common job of floor molding with green sand is shown 
in Fig. 1 8, where a wheel is to be molded and poured with a 
cast iron rim and hub, and with wrought-iron spokes set in 
the mold around which the iron flows. In the larger sizes of 
wheels of this character, provision should be made for pouring 
the rim and the hub separately. The mold is made up with 
the rim and hub pattern in the usual manner and after the 
mold has been opened and the pattern withdrawn, the 
wrought-iron spokes are set in place as shown. The ends of 



38 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



the Spokes which are to come in contact with the molten iron 
are coated with a mixture of red lead and benzine or naphtha. 
The rim is first poured, and, in shrinking, forces the spokes 
inward. After the rim has cooled the hub is poured. Wheels 
of this character are made weighing up to six tons and up to 
,ten feet diameter. It is a quite common practice to cast iron 
around iron or steel shafts. If the shaft should be given a 
coating of liquid glass (silicate of soda) prior to being placed 
in the mold, the iron will lie quietly against this and when cold. 




Fig. li 



-Molding a Wheel in which Wrought-iron Spokes are to 
BE Set. 



a pressure of many tons will be necessary to separate the two. 
Aluminum paint often serves the same purpose well. 

In molding pulleys, the work is now ordinarily done on 
machines, which will take patterns up to, say, six feet diame- 
ter. Many pulleys, however, are still molded by hand. In 
some foundries it is customary to have as a pulley pattern, 
a rim, arms loose in the rim, and a loose hub. In molding, 
the rim is rammed up in a cheek, which may be part of a 
flask or a drag staked on the floor, having enough chucks 
around it to hold the sand, if the mold is of sufificient size to 



FLOOR MOLDING 39 

require it. After the sand is rammed around the outside of 
the rim, it is rammed inside to the required depth and a hole 
dug at the center for the hub. The arms are placed inside 
the rims, at the proper distance below the top, and sand is 
tucked under them and around the hub, and the joint made. 
A lifting plate having projections of the shape of the spaces 
between the arms on its surface, is placed inside the pulley, 
the two projections between the arms being fastened together 
by clamps which pass over the arms and tie all the plates to- 
gether. A lifting screw is usually placed in three of the plates. 
The inside of the pulley, over the arms, is rammed up with the 
gate-stick in the center as if the upper half were molded in a 
cope. After ramming, the pattern is drawn and the cheek 
lifted. The rim is finished and the cope and drag halves of 
the center are marked so that they can be replaced. The 
upper half of the center is lifted off, the hub drawn, and 
the arms drawn from the drag with the hub. The center core 
is set and the cope half closed. The rim is then blackened and 
rings, half to three-quarters of an inch in thickness, are laid 
on the center, the runner built, and the center weighted for 
pouring. 

Molding Large Bevel Gears on the Floor 

Fig. 19 illustrates the making of a large bevel-gear mold. 
The pattern A is placed on the mold-board as shown, with 
the drag hub B in the center. The cope side hub is loose and 
is shown at E. The drag is placed with the joint side down and 
No. I Albany sand mixed with seacoal in the proportion of 
five parts new sand to five parts old sand to one of seacoal is 
tempered and riddled over the pattern. The facing is tucked 
in between the teeth to insure that the sand teeth thus formed 
shall be of sufficient hardness, and surplus sand is then scraped 
from the face of the teeth by hand. Facing sand is next riddled 
over the teeth and the drag rammed. The same precautions 
must be observed in ramming as were observed in the making 
of small gears at the bench, as described in Chapter II. After 



40 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



rubbing the bottom-board to a bearing, the drag is vented over 
the pattern, care being taken to avoid puncturing the sand 
teeth. The drag being rolled over, the joint is made by coping 
down around the pattern to the bottom of the outside of the 
teeth as shown at D, the sand being pressed firmly in between 
the teeth with the fingers while making the parting. Parting 
sand is rubbed on the face of the sand teeth and the cope hub E 
placed on the center of the pattern. Facing sand is laid around 
the tooth part of the joint to the proper thickness for setting 
the gaggers, and the cope placed on the drag. Gaggers are 
next set around the gear to lift the hanging sand formed by 
the outside of the teeth and over the pattern. 

Sand is then shoveled in from the heap, the flask bars are 
tucked, the gate-sticks set on top of the hub to form the pour- 
ing gate, and the cope rammed up. After the cope is lifted 
the hub E is drawn and the teeth around the pattern are 
boshed. The pattern is rapped very lightly as described in 
the operation of molding small gears in Chapter II, and drawn 
from the sand, and after the mold is finished, a light coating of 
talc or of lead mixed with talc, is dusted over the face of the 
mold. A vent-wire is passed through the core-print in the drag 
and core G of the proper diameter and length, is set after the 
vent hole in the tapered end has been filled with sand to pre- 
vent iron entering the vent holes. The cope is then closed on 
the drag. The gate-stick should be placed in the gate hole 
before closing the cope. The pouring basin H is built on top of 
the cope in order that a shallower cope may be used than 
would be necessary were the pouring basin to be built in the 
flask. It is thus seen that the molding of a gear on the floor 
is the same operation as molding a small gear at the bench, 
with the exception that, there being a larger body of sand 
contained in a larger flask, different means must be used to 
secure the sand. Furthermore, the flask is clamped instead 
of being weighted. 

In the flask N is seen the same gear with cores set to form 
a split gear for fastening in place on a shaft over the end of 
which the gear cannot be slipped. In molding this gear, the 



FLOOR MOLDING 



41 



mold is made exactly as before, but is gated so that the iron 
will enter on either side of the splitting cores L and flow up as 
evenly as possible on either side of them. The gates are shown 
at 5. The splitting cores L are extremely thin antl require 
special rodding to strengthen the sand. Insteatl of sand cores, 
iron plates, of the same shajie as the splitting cores, are sonic- 
times used, ha\-ing a thick coat of blacking dried on thcni in 
the o\-en to protect the jilate from the molten iron, and to 




Fig. 19. — Moi.niNi; I5i:vel (.".ears on the I'Loor. 



prevent the latter from burning on the i^kuc whiMi ihe mold 
is formed. It is e^'ident that the hubs for split gears nuisi be 
of special design and haxe prints on them, not onl>- for the 
center core but for the splitting core. Such hubs are shown in 
i\\^ flasks at .V and 0. 

In molding straight tootli spur gears, of twent\-four inches 
diameter and o\er. it is customar\- to place the gear pattern 
on the mold-board and to throw handfuls of sand, taken 
irom a heap alongside the m()ld-l)oar(.l, in l)etween the teeth. 



42 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

Sand rammed in this fashion forms very firm teeth. After 
the teeth are formed, sand is scraped away from the outside 
of the pattern and fresh sand is riddled into the flask and 
tucked up around the outside of the teeth after which the mold 
is rammed up as any other mold would be. 

Gear patterns are often molded by using the floor as the 
drag and bedding the pattern in it. Usually where the face of 
a gear is quite deep, and the pattern has coarse teeth, nails or 
pieces of rods are set in the teeth of the gear. Suppose the 
depth of the face to be fourteen inches. After the gear is ram- 
med up a distance of three inches, nails or spikes are laid 
radially in the teeth and it is rammed up three inches more, 
after which additional nails are inserted. The operation is 
repeated at a depth of nine and twelve inches. Thus the teeth 
formed in the sand will be fastened by the nails to the main 
body of sand back of the teeth. They are thus stronger and 
resist the strains of pouring better, and also are better able to 
sustain the weight of the cope. This practice is adopted only 
with gears of rather coarse teeth and weighing from four 
hundred pounds to several tons. 



CHAPTER IV 

LIGHT CRANE FLOOR WORK 

Molds which are to be made under the crane, require con- 
siderable skill on the part of the molder and only the more 
experienced men should be entrusted with this work, inasmuch 
as the castings made are large and the spoiling of one, due to 
poor molding, involves considerable loss. A typical mold made 
on the floor is illustrated in Figs. 20 and 21, being one side of 
a wire cloth loom frame. The finished casting weighs about 
four hundred and fifty pounds, but in pouring it, two ladles are 
used in order to obtain the proper distribution of the iron in the 
mold. 

An iron pattern B, Fig. 20, is used. This is placed on a 
mold-board which is bedded level on the floor. The drag of 
the flask is placed around it, joint side down. The pattern 
must bear firmly on the mold-board, or else wedges must be 
driven between it and the board, or the corners of the board 
wedged up until it comes in contact with the pattern. The 
pattern is then covered with a mixture of seacoal facing in the 
proportions of one part seacoal, five parts new No. i Albany 
sand and five parts heap sand. This mixture is wet with water, 
shoveled over, tramped down and riddled through a No. 4 sieve, 
after which it is riddled through a No. 8 sieve on to the pattern, 
being then carefully laid against the sides. Sand from the 
heap is then riddled through a No. 3 sieve over the facing sand, 
after which sand is shoveled in over the entire surface to a 
depth of five inches. Sand is now rammed adjoining the sides 
of the flask and around the pattern, the rammer being kept 
about one inch from the pattern, as in ramming flasks on the 
side floor. The sand is then rammed with the butt end of the 
rammer between the openings in the pattern and in the remain- 
der of the flask, excepting immediately over the pattern, which 

43 



44 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



would cause the sand to be too hard at this point. An ad- 
ditional five inches of sand is then shoveled in and peened down 
along the edges of the flask and trodden down all over the drag 
and afterward butted with the butt of the rammer, over the 
pattern, in addition to the other portions. This operation of 
adding sand and ramming it with the butt is continued until 
the flask is completely filled. It is then struck off and leveled, 
the bottom-board placed and rubbed to a bearing, after which 
the drag is vented over the pattern, the bottom-board replaced 
and clamped to the mold-board with the flask between them. 




Fig. 20. — Pattern of Wire Cloth Loom Frame on Mold-board Ready 
FOR Making Drag. 



The total weight of the flask, pattern, and sand is about forty- 
four hundred pounds and the services of the crane will be 
required to roll it over. 

A chain is placed around the drag and hooked over the 
crane hook, after which the crane raises the flask clear of the 
floor. While suspended in the air, it is turned over and lowered 
on the original bed of molding sand with the mold board up. 
The ends of the mold-board are leveled, a spirit level being 
used for this purpose, and sand is rammed under the cleats of 
the bottom-board to maintain the le\'el. After removing the 
mold-board, the joint is made as in ordinary small castings. 

Parting sand having been dusted on the joint, the pattern 
is covered with a seacoal facing to a depth of three-eighths of an 



LIGHT CRANE FLOOR WORK 



45 



inch, and the cope, previously wet down, is placed on the drag, 
after which gaggers are set. Gate-sticks are set and sand 
tucked in between the bars of the flask in exactly the same 
manner as is done in side floor molding. 

In side floor work, considerable reliance is placed on the 
clay washing of the bars of the cope to retain the sand in place, 
but in crane floor work, the flasks being larger, careful gag- 
gering is required, as the bars cannot be depended on to hold 




Fig. 21. — Drag of Wire Cloth Loom Frame on Floor. Cope is Stand- 
ing Against Wall. 



the larger body of sand. When placing the cope, should it be 
found that it does not bear evenly on the drag, it should be 
clamped down to it, or if it is too stiff to permit of this, 
the cope should be wedged up and care must be taken to 
see that this wedge is replaced when the mold is closed for 
pouring. 

Referring now to Fig. 21, it will be noted that the top of 
the pattern is coped out and gaggers, with long shanks, are 
required to lift the hanging belly of sand in the cope. In set- 



46 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



ting these gaggers, they are placed so that they will assist in 
supporting each other, and in proportion to the size of the flask 
a greater number are used than in side floor work. After the 
sand has been tucked in between the bars and the pattern, 
sufficient sand is shoveled in between the bars of the cope to 
form a ramming and the cope is rammed up as in side floor 
work. After the top has been scraped off, the cope is well 
vented. The crane is then brought over the center of the 




Fig. 22.- 



-WiRE Cloth Loom Frame Mold Clamped Ready for Pour- 
ing AND Bound Down with Binder. 



cope and chains are hooked into staples or eyes set in the sides 
of the cope flask and the cope lifted and set to one side, one 
edge resting on set-off boxes as shown in Fig. 21. Care must 
be exercised in doing this as any jar is liable to shake sand 
from the cope. Therefore, strain should be brought on the 
chains gradually, and lifting and lowering commenced slowly. 
It is almost invariably the case, that when the cope is lifted, 
some parts will be broken down. When these are repaired, the 
sand should be nailed to insure its remaining in place. The 



LIGHT CRANE FLOOR WORK 47 

cope being finished, a coating of silver lead is applied, over 
which a light facing of talc is dusted. 

The joint being brushed off, the pattern is boshed and 
rapped. Eye-bolts are screwed into the pattern and it js 
lifted from the sand by the crane, the pattern being rapped as 
the crane lifts it. The mold is finished and the gate D is cut 
and also a second gate at E. The principal body of iron enters 
through this and therefore it is made considerably larger than 
the other. Sharper iron is poured through this gate than 
through E. At X a gate is cut to the riser. 

The mold being finished, cores are set in the prints formed 
by the core-prints F and G on the pattern. Sand is slicked 
around them and the mold coated with silver lead over which 
talc is dusted. The cope is now lowered on to the drag, being 
guided to the point where the pins enter the pin holes by the 
wooden guides H. Before lowering the cope, flour is placed 
on all the small cores to indicate whether or not the cope 
bears on them. When the cope comes to a bearing one clamp 
is set on each side to give the same conditions which will ensue 
when the mold is finally closed. The clamps are then removed, 
the cope lifted and examined and the cores resting in the prints 
AA placed, after which the mold is closed and clamped as 
shown in Fig. 22. In order to prevent the cope springing at 
the center, when poured, blocks of wood are set at either end 
of the flask and a rail clamped across them as shown in Fig. 
22. Wedges are driven between this rail and the bars of the 
flask. Paper is laid over the top of the cope, which is lighted 
when the mold is poured and gases escape from the vents. 
The gases escaping from the vents in the drag will be lighted 
with a red-hot skimmer. 



CHAPTER V 

BEDDING PATTERNS IN THE FOUNDRY FLOOR.— MOLDING 

A DRAW-BENCH FRAME IN THE PIT.— MOLDING 

THE FRAME OF A GAP PRESS 

Often large patterns are molded in pits in the foundry 
floor, cope and cheek plates being the only part of the flask 
used. In this way, the floor is used as a drag and a large part 
of the expense of flask manufacture is avoided. In case the 
foundry floor is damp, tanks of large size are sunk in the floor 
and molds made in them. If this is not done, the floor being 
slightly damp, the inside of the pit may be lined with tar paper. 
Work of this character is usually known as pit molding. 
Most of the molds made in pits are of green sand, although 
skin-dried molds are also made. 

Instead of using but one pattern in the flask, the molder 
is, in many cases, given patterns of various sizes and shapes 
which he is required to mold in a certain space in the floor. 
For instance, at the foundry of R. Hoe & Co., New York, 
printing press manufacturers, it is the custom for two molders 
to work together, assisted by two helpers and to use a cast 
iron cope fourteen feet long by five and one-half feet wide, 
molding in the floor enough patterns to fill the space covered 
by the cope. 

The space allotted to a molder, on work of this character, 
is termed his "floor." When the number of castings desired 
from a medium-sized pattern is small, they often are molded 
in a hole dug in the floor. Assume that there are several 
pipes to be made, each three feet long and six inches diameter. 
A hole is dug in the floor about four feet long, in order to allow 
for the core-prints in the pattern, and four and one-half inches 
deep. Where the flanges come on the end of the pipes, the 
hole is made deep enough and wide enough to accommodate 

48 



BEDDING PATTERNS IN THE FOUNDRY FLOOR 49 

them. Molding sand is riddled in the hole and the pattern 
placed in it with the joint side up. A long block of wood being 
placed on top of the pattern, the pattern is driven down into 
the sand the proper distance by pounding on the block, thus 
ramming the sand underneath the pattern. The pattern is 
now weighted in position and riddled molding sand laid along- 
side of it by hand. Sand is then shoveled in from the heap 
and is peened down around the pattern with the rammer. If 
necessary, the pattern will be rapped down and lifted out and 
the flange pattern fixed up, after which the pattern is replaced 
and the sides rammed up. The sand being rammed even with 
the top of the floor, the joint of the pattern is made and the 
cope part of the flask placed over the pattern. Parting sand is 
dusted on and the cope made up in the ordinary manner. 
Before lifting off the cope, the molder drives down in each 
corner of the cope on the outside, an iron rod or a wooden stake 
about twelve inches long to act as guide when lifting and re- 
placing the cope. The cope is then lifted and finished, the 
pattern is drawn and the drag finished, after which the cope is 
replaced and weighted for pouring and the stakes removed 
when the mold is ready to pour. Instead of weighting the cope, 
it may be held down by bolting it by means of binders across 
the cope, which engage bolts rising from binders underneath 
the mold. This method will be described in detail in the 
description of the next mold. 

Molding a Draw-Bench Frame in the Floor 

Having described the construction of a comparatively 
small mold, we will now take up the process of bedding a 
rather large pattern in the floor. Assume that we have the 
pattern shown in Figs. 23-27. This is a comparatively 
shallow pattern, long and narrow. We will also assume that 
it is to be molded in a pit prepared for a much larger pattern. 
The pit is first dug in the foundry floor, say sixteen feet long, 
nine feet wide, and six feet six inches deep. Referring to Fig. 
28, hinders of cast iron, spaced four feet on centers, are placed 
4 



50 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

across the bottom of the pit. The ends of the binders should 
be in line and the tops leveled to a straight edge, after which 
sand is firmly rammed between and around them. Each 
binder has a vertical slot in each end in which an eye-holt with 
a nut and washer on the lower end, is slipped, as shown in the 
illustration. Sand is then rammed around the end of the 
binders and that between them is struck ofif level with the top. 
Iron plates, one inch thick, are placed on top of the binders, 
covering them and extending to within six inches of the eye- 
bolts. Six-inch square timbers are stood on end inside of each 
eye-bolt and on top of the binder. These pieces of timber are 
allowed to extend above the floor line about four inches. Sand 
is rammed around the bottom of them and scantling is nailed 
from one to the other at the top as shown. The end timbers 
are also tied across the ends with scantling. 

On top of the iron plates is laid about five inches of molding 
sand, on top of which is placed a cinder bed, both firmly ram- 
med. Over the cinder bed, straw or newspapers are placed, 
to keep the sand, which is later rammed on top of the cinders, 
from working down among them and filling the voids in the 
cinder bed which are depended upon to bring the gas from 
under the casting to pipes which extend from the cinder bed 
to a little below the top of the floor line, as shown in Fig. 28. 
In the top of the pipes, a plug of rolled bagging is placed to 
prevent sand entering while the mold is being rammed. This is 
removed before the mold is poured. 

The timbers are sawed off flush with the floor line, a cord 
being used to give the proper alignment. This will give more 
accurate results than any attempt at measuring the timbers 
and sawing them off before placing. The pit thus prepared, 
is for a pattern four feet six inches deep. It can be used for a 
smaller pattern by simply filling the pit to a greater or less 
depth with sand. Referring now to Figs. 23-27, the pattern is 
placed on the floor in the position in which it is desired to 
pour it and its outline traced in the sand. This indicates the 
amount of space required for the pattern, which is then re- 
moved and the pit excavated to a sufficient depth to permit 



MOLDING A DRAW-BENCH FRAME IN THE PIT 



51 




52 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

molding the pattern, a deeper hole being dug at one end to 
accommodate the projection on the pattern. The cinder bed is 
placed, covered with newspapers, and the gas pipes put in 
position. On top of the cinder bed, molding sand is rammed 
to conform to the line F of the pattern. Fig. 26. The pattern 
is then placed in the pit and leveled to the proper height with 
wedges F, Fig. 30. 

The portion of the pattern DD, Fig. 26, is removable. 
This is removed and the remaining portion of the pattern is 
weighted at the ends, and facing sand tucked under the edges 
of the pattern. The construction of the pattern is such, that 
this work can be done both from the inside and the outside, 
while the weights hold the pattern in place. The wedges F 
are removed as they are reached in this operation. Gate cores 
are placed at the ends of the pattern and also upright gates. 
Facing sand is laid up against the side of the pattern and black 
sand is shoveled in around it to a depth of about five inches 
and is then firmly rammed, first with the peen and then 
with the butt of the rammer. Inasmuch as these first ram- 
mings of sand receive the greatest side strain from the melted 
iron when the mold is filled, this portion of the operation must 
be carefully done. The facing sand, lying loose at the top and 
adjoining the pattern, is scratched away and when the core- 
prints C, Fig. 26, are reached, the pins which hold them to the 
side of the pattern are removed. These pins are usually made 
of three-sixteenths-inch wire, one end of which is turned over 
and extended through the core-print into the pattern. 

The outside being rammed up, the inside of the pattern 
next receives attention. Facing sand is laid against the sides 
of the pattern and blcvck sand is rammed inside. When the 
sand has reached the proper height, five-eighths-inch iron 
rods are driven down in the green-sand core, formed inside 
the pattern, as shown at G, Fig. 30. The pattern is faced and 
sand rammed up in it until it is within three-quarters of an 
inch of the top, when the sweep D, Fig. 27, is used to true the 
facing sand in the last three-quarters of an inch. The green- 
sand core is vented, care being taken that the vent-wire passes 



MOLDING A DRAW-BENCH FRAME IN THE PIT 



53 



\ 



through the newspapers or straw into the cinder bed. The 
vents are then filled with sand at the top and the face at the 
top of the mold is made up with the 
fingers. The covering boards forming 
the top of the pattern are then re- 
placed and the joint is made level 
with the upper surface of the pattern. 
The joint being made, parting sand 
is dusted on, the cope is placed, 
rapped down, staked, and then hoisted 
ofif. Attention is here called to the 
manner in which the cope is barred 
through the center as shown in 

Fig. 31. 

Facing sand is next spread over 
the pattern and the joint, after which 
the cope, first being wet down or 
clay- washed, is lowered into place. 
Gate-sticks and gaggers are set, black 
sand is riddled into the cope and 
tucked in between the bars and pat- 
tern. Sand is then shoveled into the 
cope to a depth of about five inches 
and rammed with the peen of the 
rammer. Enough rammings of sand 
are added to fill the cope level full. 
The final ramming of sand is butted 
with the rammer and the excess sand 
cleaned ofT. In ramming up the cope, 
the space between the lines of chucks, 
CC, Fig. 31, is not rammed up with 
sand, but is left open and the cope 
well vented. 

The gate-sticks are now removed 
and the cope hoisted ofif. The joint is 
brushed off and the mold is vented 
all around the pattern at a dis- 



> 



\ 



54 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

tance of about one and one-quarter inches from the edge of 
the pattern after the latter has been boshed. The pattern 
is now rapped and drawn, the gate-sticks removed, and the 
mold finished with trowel, slicker, and lifter, and wherever 
square corners of sand have been left on the inside of the mold 
by the pattern they are rounded off to form fillets in the cast- 
ing. This is a point which should always be remembered, for 
unless a fillet be placed in the corner of a casting, strains will 
be set up when the casting cools and it will have a tendency to 
break through the corner. 

Referring to Fig. 27, at A will be noted a partition extend- 
ing the length of the casting formed by a corresponding space 
in the mold. As the green-sand core C is struck off level at 
the line of pattern B, this core extends only partially into 
the pattern. The balance of the space is occupied by dry- 
sand cores hung from the cope. These are shown at E and 
straddle the green-sand core, leaving a space between them 
and the green-sand core into which the iron flows to form the 
partition F. 

In order to obtain the right thickness of metal on the sides 
of the casting, pieces of board, of the same thickness as the 
casting is to be, are placed over the green-sand core, after 
which the cores E are lowered into position on these boards. 
After they are correctly placed, the cope, Fig. 29, is lowered 
over the mold, being guided to place by the stakes B, driven 
into the floor. Hook bolts are passed through the openings 
A, Fig. 31, and attached to staples provided for the purpose 
at B in the cores. Gate-sticks are placed at where the gas 
is to escape from the cores and wedges are driven in between 
the bars of the cope and the top of the cores to insure the cope 
bearing solidly on the cores in order to hold them in position 
to give the proper thickness of metal when the mold is poured. 

The spaces between the bars XX at either end of the cope, 
and between chucks C C, left open when the cope was ram- 
med up, are now rammed with black sand and the gate-sticks 
forming vents are drawn. The clamps H, Fig. 31, are now laid 
in position as shown and by means of the slotted bars D, 



MOLDING A DRAW-BENCH FRAME IN THE PIT 55 




56 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

slipped over the hook bolts to the cores, previously mentioned ; 
the cores are firmly held in position by screwing the nuts on 
the bolt down on the slotted bar. The cope is next hoisted 
as is shown in Fig. 29 with the cores hanging from it. 

The mold is examined, the boards on top of the green-sand 
core are removed, the name-plate core is placed, and the cores 
X, Fig. 30, set in position. Necessary repairs to the mold are 
made and its entire surface is given a coat of silver lead. Gates 
are cut to connect the upright gates in the cope with those in 
the floor. The cope is then finally lowered and held down with 
binders which span the pit. Blocks of wood are placed on the 
cope underneath the binders, after which the bolts I, Fig. 2^, 
are hooked into the eye-bolts in the floor, the tops being set in 
the slots in the ends of the binders, when by screwing down the 
nuts, the binders are made to bear firmly on the cope. Care 
should be" taken in tightening the binders as the nuts at the 
end will exert considerable leverage and crush the mold if 
screwed down too far. 

Runner boxes, shown in Fig. 27, at the ends of the cope, are 
placed and runners built as indicated in Fig. 31. In order to 
avoid any great head on the casting, due to excessive height 
of the runner boxes, the flow-off D is built, which conveys any 
excess of iron to a basin in the floor. Gases escape from the 
mold through the pipes Q, Fig. 30, and through the gates lead- 
ing from the cores. These gases are lighted as soon as they 
begin to flow. 

Eye-bolts, timbers, and vent-pipes are all kept below the 
floor level in this type of mold, so that they will be out of the 
way. When access is needed to them, they can easily be 
reached by a slight amount of digging. 

In order to compare the foregoing method of molding 
with the ordinary way of molding in a flask, consider what 
would be done with the same pattern in a flask. It would be 
placed on the mold-board, cope side down, with a drag around 
it as in Fig. 32. The pattern would be faced with facing sand 
on the outside and the sand rammed in alongside the pattern 
as in molding any plain pattern, until the top of the pattern 



MOLDING A DRAW-BENCH FRAME IN THE PIT 



57 



1 




» 

!z; 

oi 
Q 

o 
g 

Q 

>-; 
o 



58 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



-^l. 



is reached. The upright gates B and the inlet gates D would 
then be placed as shown, the inside of the pattern cleaned out, 

faced, and the green-sand core 
formed, rods being placed as 
before and the core vented. 
The remainder of the drag then 
would be rammed up, the sand 
struck off, and the bottom- 
board rubbed to a bearing. The 
bottom-board would be lifted 
off, channelways formed in the 
bottom of the drag by striking 
it with the strike, edge down, 
after which the molder would 
then vent the drag all over. 
The channelways conduct the 
gas from the vents to the edge 
of the mold. The bottom- 
board would next be replaced 
and clamped and the drag 
rolled over. After the joint is 
made, the cope is made exactly 
as before, the principal differ- 
ence being that the cope is 
guided by pins on the flask 
instead of stakes in the floor. 
Fig- 33 shows the mold closed 
and clamped and ready for 
pouring. 



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u 

Q 

<; 

Q 

o 
u 

Q 

o 



w 
m 

< 
Q 

o 
2; 



Molding a Gap-Press Frame 

In Figs. 34-37 are shown the 
patterns of a gap-press frame, 
which can be molded in the 
same pit used for the patterns 
described above. A pit is dug 



MOLDING A GAP-PRESS FRAME 59 

between the upright posts, deeper than the pattern, and 
the sand and cinders riddled and separated. When the 
hole has a depth of about lO inches greater than the depth 
of the pattern, a cinder bed about three inches thick is made 
and gas pipes provided for carrying gas away from the 
bottom of the mold when it is poured. A timber D, Fig. 36, 
is placed as shown. This is used later for holding the chaplets 
supporting the core. Molding sand is then rammed up over 
the cinder bed, newspapers first having been placed on it, and 
shaped to conform to the under side of the pattern as nearly as 
possible. The pattern is then placed, being blocked and 
wedged to its proper position and weighted to hold it in place 
while sand is being rammed under it. The parting of the 
pattern is at ^, Fig. 35, and that part of the pattern below the 
parting is bedded in the pit as shown in Fig. 36. The core-print 
for the main core is at B, Fig. 35, and a flat iron plate is placed 
under this print to support the weight of the heavy main core. 
A slab core is set so as to bear against the face of the feet, as 
they must be fairly true and also carry a heavy strain due to 
the weight of the finished casting. Sand is rammed underneath 
and facing is tucked under the pattern, the wedges and blocks 
being removed as they are reached and replaced with firmly 
rammed sand. When the pattern is finally resting on a bed 
of sand, the stakes AA, Fig. 37, are driven and the pattern 
lifted from the pit. The entire face of the mold is well vented, 
the vents extending down into the cinder bed. The face of 
the mold is then made up with the fingers and finished as far 
as possible, after which the pattern is replaced and rapped 
down to a solid bearing. The stakes are now removed, facing 
sand laid against the pattern, and black sand is rammed solid- 
ly around it, struck off, and the joint made. The joint being 
made, parting sand is dusted on the joint, and the cope half of 
the pattern placed on the drag. The cope, Fig. 38, is lowered 
over the pattern and staked in place with stakes X, after which 
it is lifted and wet down or clay- washed. The pattern is then 
covered with facing sand, which is laid up against any portion 
to which it does not adhere readily and it is also spread over 



6o 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



the joint. A slab core is placed against the foot, this core being 
arranged with a staple which will permit it to be wired to the 
cope. Gate-sticks and risers are placed and long-stem gaggers 
set in position. As" the pattern is heavy, it is necessary to 
provide some means of supporting it in the cope, since it might 




H A 



- Fig. 36 "^A •^ 




FiQ.39 Bjil 

THE FINISHED Fig.35 

CASTING THE PATTERN 




Fig. 34 
THE PATTERN 



Figs. 34-39. — Molding a Gap-Press Frame. 

fall out when the cope is lifted. Accordingly, wood screws, 
with eyes in the end, and extending through the cope into 
the pattern are provided. After the pattern is covered with 
facing sand, black sand, to a depth of about two inches, is 
shoveled in and rammed with short iron hand rammers. In 



MOLDING A GAP-PRESS FRAME 6 1 

many large copes, such as this, the bars are stopped off some 
distance above the patterns and the sand is shoveled in and 
rammed with these rammers instead of being tucked in by 
hand as is the case with smaller patterns. The black sand is 
now filled in, in several rammings, until the top of the foot 
is reached. A riser for a flow-off is placed on top of the foot 
as it is the highest part of the mold. If gas pockets in a mold, 
it always does so at the highest point, and the provision of a 
flow-off to enable some of the iron to run away from this 
point, will produce a casting sound and free from blow-holes. 
After placing the riser, sand is filled in the flask and rammed 
until the cope is filled. The top is then cleaned of loose sand, 
well vented, and the core at the foot properly secured. Gate- 
sticks and risers are removed and the cope lifted off. 

The cope is set up on one side and the wedges and rods in 
the eye-bolts, holding the pattern in the cope, are removed. 
The holes left by them are filled up and the cope rolled over 
on its back. The pattern is drawn and the cope finished and 
given a coat of silver lead, which is rubbed on with the hand on 
the heavier parts and brushed on with a camel's-hair brush on 
the lighter. Channelways and g^tes are cut in the cope, both 
to conduct the iron to the mold and to act as cleaners. 

Before the drag portion of the pattern is drawn, the screws, 
holding the pattern to the base, are removed, freeing the base 
from the main part of the pattern. In the corner formed by the 
foot of the bracket, iron rods five-eighths inch diameter, are 
driven to support the sand when the iron flows around this 
corner, which is well vented down to the cinder bed. After this 
is done, the foot portion of the pattern is drawn and the mold 
finished. When finishing the drag and cope, large-headed nails 
are pushed into the face of the mold, around the jaw, and also 
around the edges of the base. This is to prevent the heavier 
parts of the casting from scabbing when the iron is poured. 
When finishing the cope and blacking it with lead, this black- 
ing is omitted from that part of the mold forming thin portions 
of the casting, as there is a liability to cold-shutting the iron 
with a heavy facing like lead. A lighter facing, with less sea- 



62 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

coal, is used on these portions. The mold being finished, it is 
gated and nails are pushed down into the sand in front of the 
gates, to keep the face of the mold from being cut by the iron 
flowing into it. At one end of the mold there is no core-print 
for the main core. Consequently, it must be held up by chap- 
lets. Accordingly, these are cut to length, sharpened on one 
end, and driven through the sand in the floor, into the timber 
D, Fig. 36, and allowed to extend above the face of the mold 
a distance equal to the thickness of the casting, as shown at 
F, Fig. 36. The main core / is then set, one end resting in the 
core-print, the other being held up by the chaplet. At the end, 
resting in the core-print, provision is made for gas to escape 
through suitable vents in the mold. Cores K and L are next 
set and then the shaft core, one end of which rests in the core 
K, while the other is held up by a chaplet G in the core-print. 
The cope is rolled back and the gate-stick placed in the 
gate hole. The runner B, Fig. 38, is built and an iron ring 
placed around the riser C. Two pieces of pig iron are placed on 
each side of the gate-stick, forming the flow-off D. Pieces of 
clay one inch diameter, and a little higher than the thickness 
of the casting, are formed and set on the cores at the points at 
which it is desired that the chaplets shall be placed. The 
cope is closed on the mold, and is then immediately removed 
and examined and repaired if necessary. It frequently hap- 
pens in closing the cope over the cores that parts of the 
cope are broken. In order to see that the cope bears prop- 
erly on the cores, flour or white sand is placed on such parts 
as may be doubtful of bearing properly. These will leave 
a mark on the dark sand of the mold on the removal of the 
cope. It being found that the cope bears as desired on the 
joint and cores, the vent-wire is run up through the cope, 
and chaplets are set at the points where the pieces of clay 
have marked the mold. The stems of the chaplets are made 
long enough, so that when they are pushed up through the 
holes in the cope made with the vent-wire they will extend 
about a quarter of an inch above the top of the cope and 
still leave in the mold a length of chaplet equal to the thick- 



MOLDING A GAP-PRESS FRAME 63 

ness of the casting. The chaplets are held from falling down 
by pieces of soft clay squeezed around the top of the stem 
projecting through the cope. 

The vent-wire is also used to form outlets through the cope 
for the gas driven ofif from the cores. Paste is placed on the 
edges of the cores so that the iron cannot "fin" over them, 
and thus enter the vents and prevent the escape of gases which 
would then back into the mold and ruin the casting. It is 
advisable, before placing the cope temporarily, to arrange 
pieces of thin rope or belt lacing from the vent openings in the 
cores to the outside of the mold. These should be covered with 
sand and be below the joints. When the mold is finally closed, 
and just before pouring, these ropes or belt lacings should be 
pulled out, thus leaving a clear vent from the core. If clay 
be filled in around the rope or lacing before sand is filled in 
around them, it will be impossible for iron to enter these vents, 
even should it overflow the cores. In places where the cope 
does not bear as it should, the sand in the floor is built up or 
parting sand is filled in on the joint. With very large castings, 
what is termed a clay worm — a roll of common fire clay about 
fourteen inches long — is laid at the back of the gate. This 
being soft, it is easily flattened by the weight of the cope when 
it is finally closed and prevents the iron straining out the 
back of the pouring gate at the joint. 

The cope is now finally closed and the riser C covered so 
that nothing will drop into the mold. Binders .4, Fig. 38, are 
placed on top of the cope as shown, blocks of hard wood or 
iron being placed between the binders and the edge of the cope. 
The binders are held down by hook bolts engaging with the 
eye-bolts in the floor as before. In order to keep the main 
core from rising when iron is poured in the mold, the binders 
£ are passed underneath the binders A, being held by wedges. 
Wedges G are pushed in between these binders and the top 
of the chaplets. 

A certain disadvantage in pouring is encountered in that 
the jaw portion, which must be the strongest part of the cast- 
ing, is heavy, while the lightest part is the leg. The iron must 



64 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

be poured hot enough to run to all the light parts of the cast- 
ing, including the leg, and this is too hot to give the best 
results with the heavier portions. 

Let us consider molding the same pattern in a flask. The 
drag portion of the pattern is placed on the mold-board and 
a slab core placed against the foot, while an iron plate is laid 
on top of the core-print. The drag of the flask is set around the 
pattern which is then covered with facing sand and successive 
layers of facing sand around the pattern of the leg. The flask 
is filled up with rammings of black sand and struck off. 
Bottom-boards are rubbed to a bearing, the drag vented, and 
the bottom-boards replaced. The clamps are placed in posi- 
tion and the drag rolled over. The cope is then finished as 
before. 

Still another method exists of bedding which must be 
practiced with many different styles of patterns. The pattern 
is blocked and wedged to the proper height in the hole and 
black or heap sand is tucked and rammed under it, the block- 
ing and wedges being removed as reached. When the pattern 
has been rammed completely on its under surface, it is staked 
and removed and the sand bed below it well vented down to the 
cinders. The entire face of the mold is covered with facing 
sand to a depth of three-quarters inch and the pattern replaced 
and rapped down to ram the facing sand into the bed of black 
sand. The vents in the black sand take care of the gas from 
the facing sand of which the face of the mold is made. 



CHAPTER VI 

MOLDING COLUMNS 

Cast-iron columns are still used to a certain extent to 
support the floors of buildings and also for ornamental pur- 
poses on the fronts. The illustrations, Figs. 40-42, show the 
pattern and method of molding a rectangular ornamental col- 
umn. The pattern is made with separate side pieces A to 
which are attached pieces of moulding to give an ornamental 
finish. These are pinned on to the side pieces' so that they may 
be removed during the process of molding. The pattern itself 
is made solid and is shown at B. In molding, the floor is used 
as a drag, the pit being prepared as described in Chapter V. 

The pattern is placed in the pit and leveled and a facing 
sand, comprising one part seacoal to fourteen parts molding 
sand, is laid up against the pattern. Black sand from the 
heap is rammed firmly against the facing sand. As each suc- 
cessive ramming of sand is laid in the mold, the facing sand 
is firmly rammed against the pattern with a hand rammer and 
fresh facing placed against the pattern. As the sand in the 
mold rises to the point at which the pieces of moulding a are 
pinned to the pattern, the pins holding the moulding are with- 
drawn, and it is supported by the sand. The facing of the 
pattern and the ramming of black sand is then continued 
until the floor line is reached where the joint is made. The 
cope is now placed in position and rapped down to insure its 
bearing solidly on the sand. If there is but a small amount of 
sand around the pattern and there is danger of the mold being 
crushed in when securing the cope, pieces of board are placed 
under the cope and on the sides near the center. In this case 
pieces of plank are nailed to the sides of the cope and stakes are 
driven against them into the floor to act as guides when the 
cope is lifted on or off; otherwise stakes C, Fig. 42, are used 
5 65 



66 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



for this purpose. The cope is then lifted off and clay washed or 
wet down; the pattern is brushed off, parting sand placed on 
the joint and facing sand riddled over the pattern, except at 
its center. The facing sand is left off the pattern at the center 
as it has a cooling effect on the iron which, in this case, will 
be poured from the ends of the mold. Were seacoal facing 
to be used at the point where the flow from opposite directions 




solid eattern with pieces pinned on vct ^o, 
Fig. 40 




COPE CLOSED ON AND SECURED 
Fig. 42 

Figs. 40-42. — Molding an Ornamental Building Column in the Sand. 

meets, there would be the liability of a cold shut forming and 
thus destroying the casting. In place of the seacoal facing 
at this point, a mixture of old and new sand is used. 

The cope is now replaced, and gate-sticks D and E set to 
form the pouring gates and risers. Gaggers are set and the 
sand shoyeled in to the proper depth for tucking the bars. 
Extreme care must be used in this operation in castings of this 
character, since any soft spots left in the mold will form lumps 
on the casting and destroy their value for ornamental purposes. 
After tucking the bars, the cope is rammed up, vented in the 
usual way, the cope hoisted off, turned over on its back and 



MOLDING COLUMNS 67 

finished. The joint is brushed off and the pattern drawn. 
The pieces of moulding a remain in tlie sand when the pattern 
is drawn, and they now are drawn inward into the mold and 
lifted out. Should these pieces be of any considerable depth, 
thus leaving a considerable body of sand hanging over them, 
the mold is nailed on the upper surface of the cavity left by 
these pieces. 

The side pieces A are now placed in the mold, one on either 
side, and the center or green-sand core built. These side pieces 
are the same thickness as the casting is required to be. A 
mixture consisting of one-half old sand and one-half new sand 
is tempered and the side pieces faced with it. Black sand is 
rammed firmly against this facing until a height of about six 
inches below the top of the casting is reached. The sides of the 
core are then vented and two channelways of cinders are 
formed, extending the length of the green-sand core into the 
body of sand around the mold. In order to do this, the joint 
must be broken up somewhat. Pieces of pipe are placed to 
bring the vent from the cinder beds to the outside of the mold 
as described in Chapter V. The cinders used should be, 
roughly, five-eighths inch diameter and should not come closer 
than four inches to the side of the mold. After tamping them 
with the rammer, paper is placed over them, it also being kept 
back four inches from the edge of the mold. Should the paper 
be allowed to extend to the edge, iron would find its way into 
the sand through the crack formed by the paper, and raise the 
face of the mold. 

The sand is now rammed on top of the paper to within a 
short distance of the top of the side pieces, when it is struck off 
with a sweep running on the side pieces. These latter extend 
above the surface so that the sweeps will not bear on the joint 
when used. The whole surface is then vented down to the 
cinder beds. The surface of the mold must be soft enough for 
the gas to escape easily and allow the melted iron to lie quietly 
on it. The casting being very thin, will be scabbed and in- 
jured should the iron boil while covering this green-sand core. 
Making the face of this core is usually done by hand. In order 



68 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

to form it to the proper height to give the correct thickness, 
the sweep G is first used. The first sweep used left the sand 
about three-quarters of an inch below the final face of the core. 
The same mixture of sand which was used to face the inside of 
the side pieces is now used to make up the upper face of the 
center. This sand is pressed lightly down in place by hand 
or it is thrown in handfuls down on the surface. The sweep 
G is then used to true the sand from / to /, Fig. 42. At point 
/, a recessed panel X is formed and sweep H is used to sweep 
the sand out to a greater depth at the center of the core, where 
this panel is to come. This sweep is used from J to K after 
which the sweep G is used to complete the surface from K to 
M. The top of the center is now finished and the side pieces 
drawn, fillets first being formed on the edges. The mold is 
then blackened over its entire surface, except at the center, 
with plumbago. A slight coating of talc is then dusted over 
the entire surface to assist the flow of iron through the mold. 
Gates are next cut for pouring, being shown by the dotted 
lines R, Fig. 42, and also gates to the risers. Flour or white 
sand is placed on the joint and the cope is lowered into position. 
The cope is then raised and the mold examined to see if the 
cope bears solidly as will be evidenced by marks in the white 
sand or flour, necessary repairs are made, pouring basins and 
heads or flow-offs from risers are built, and the cope is lowered 
into place. The cope may be secured either by means of 
binders as described in Chapter V, or it may be weighted 
down. Iron for a casting of this character must be poured 
sharp, that is, extremely hot. 

A point which has been omitted in the description of the 
making of the mold is the provision of a camber in the pattern 
in order that the casting shall come straight when cooled. As 
the sides of the casting are thin, when the melted iron is poured 
the lower part of the thin side fills quickly and sets hard before 
the top of the casting is set. This almost instant cooling of 
the sides, combined with the later cooling of the top, causes the 
shrinkage in the sides and top to be unequal. The shrinkage 
of the top tends to draw the ends upward and thus give a bent 



MOLDING COLUMNS 69 

casting, or to crack the casting if the moulding on the sides 
lias been left off or if the iron is not especially soft. If the sides 
are heavier than the plate forming the top of the casting, the 
casting will cool at about the same rate in all parts and thus 
avoid bending. There are one or two methods of avoiding 
this bending of the casting. One is to make the pattern with a 
slight camber in it, the ends being at a lower level than the 
center. Another method is to force the ends of the pattern 
down in the mold, below the level of the center, so that, with 
either method, the mold itself is curved in the opposite direc- 
tion to that in which the casting would curve in cooling. The 
same shrinkage effects will occur with the mold made in this 
manner, but the casting originally being curved in the opposite 
direction, the shrinkage in cooling will pull it straight. 

By using a solid pattern and ramming it up to get the ex- 
terior surface first and then making the center by means of side 
pieces as described, the pattern is easier to mold and castings 
of the desired thickness are more likely to be obtained. The 
side pieces should be provided with straps and eye-bolts for 
drawing them out of the sand as shown in the illustration. 
There is but little chance to rap them while drawing, and they 
are usually drawn by means of a hook in the eye-bolt, the 
other end of the hook being attached to a lever. While bearing 
down on the lever, the hook or top of the eye-bolt is rapped 
slightly. 

Molding a Round Column 

In many foundries it has been the custom to use split pat- 
terns in molding round columns, drawing one-half of the 
pattern from the drag and the other from the cope. Other 
foundrymen prefer to use the solid pattern. In molding, the 
pattern would be laid in a frame, the drag being placed on top 
in the usual manner, rammed up, rolled over, and the joint 
made. The cope would then be rammed up and the pat- 
tern rapped through the cope, thus avoiding a seam showing 
on the casting. Another method would be to bed the pattern 
in the floor, if only a few were to be made, and to stake the 



70 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



cope In position as in molding the ornamental column described 
earlier in this chapter. Fig. 43 shows a column pattern placed 
on a board as described with the drag around it ready to be 
rammed up and rolled over. 

Round columns are frequently provided with brackets to 
support I-beams. The column shown in Fig. 43 has such a 







JF^ 



Fig. 44. SIDE VIEW of mold of column with brackets in cope and drag. 




Fig. 43. column patternin novel. 



_A. 



Faced to receive pattern \i 



^T 




.A_ 



IT 



^ deeper than pattern 



Jk. 



"^ 



Figs. 43-45. — Molding Columns. 

bracket which will be molded in the drag, while Fig. 44 shows 
a column with brackets to be molded in both cope and drag. 
This latter column illustrates some special devices adopted in 
molding. For instance, it will be noted that the bracket B 
extends to the top of the cope. A head of iron of greater depth 
than this is required in order to insure the filling of the mold 
of the bracket. To make the cope of the requisite depth re- 
quired to provide this head, and also to provide the necessary 
thickness of sand over the pattern, would entail unnecessary 
expense and also render the flask more difficult to handle. It 



MOLDING COLUMNS 7 1 

would also necessitate a greater amount of time to ram up 
the deeper cope. In order to avoid these features, the cope is 
simply boxed over at the bracket and at each end of the flask 
where the pouring gates are located. 

In the author's opinion, the cheapest manner of molding 
round columns, when there are a number to be made, is to 
make a solid pattern and use a drag of the required length, 
width, and depth. The drag should be placed on the molding- 
board and leveled with the joint side up. Sand from the heap 
is rammed to a point very near the joint, but so formed as to 
leave a trough through the center. The sweep F, Fig. 45, is 
then used and the sand is swept out to a depth of about three- 
quarters of an inch greater than the half diameter of the pat- 
tern. Facing sand, mixed according to the thickness of the 
column, is then spread on the surface left by the sweep and 
the sweep G, raised from the joint of the flask about one- 
quarter inch, is used to form the facing to the shape of the 
pattern. The pattern, if free of brackets, is then laid in the 
trough so formed and rapped down until the block of wood H, 
which is used as a gauge, rests on the top of the pattern and the 
joint of the flask. If a bracket is to be made on the lower side 
of the casting, sand is dug out of the trough where the bracket 
is to be formed, and after the pattern is placed in position and 
rapped down, facing sand is laid around the bracket and sand 
rammed in against it and against the pattern where needed. 
The same gauge that was used to set the pattern is now used 
as a sweep to sweep the sand from each side of the pattern at 
the joint. The joint is vented, after which the cope is placed 
and rammed up with gate-sticks and risers in their proper 
places. The pattern is rapped through the cope, a gate-stick 
having been placed over a hole in the pattern, provided for this 
purpose. The rapping bar is entered through this hole, which, 
after the removal of the bar, is filled up. The cope bracket is 
pinned to the cope side of the pattern and when the cope is 
hoisted off, the bracket is found in it. In ramming up the cope, 
the spaces / and / between the ends of the flask and the first 
bar are not rammed up. The gate-sticks are set between the 



72 FOUNDRY PRACTICE ' 

next two bars as at K. The runner boxes D, which are usually 
free from the cope, are not rammed up with the cope, but later 
after the mold is closed. 

After the cope is rammed up, it is rolled over and the 
bracket has the sand secured around it, usually by means of 
spikes, and the bracket pattern is drawn. It is frequently ad- 
visable to ram a dry-sand core in the mold against the face of 
the bracket which is to be used as a seat for the I-beam. After 
the pattern is drawn, the face of the mold is felt and any soft 
spots filled up with a pipe slicker. The cope is then given a 
coat of silver lead and the chaplets for holding down the cores 
are placed as described in Chapter XIV. The joint of the drag 
being brushed off, a channel is formed alongside the drag which 
is dampened with the bosh. A vent-wire is bent and run from 
this channel under the pattern, thus venting under the pat- 
tern and alongside of it to the side of the flask. As the sides 
were previously vented toward the bottom-board, before the 
joint was made, the escape of gases from the drag is thus pro- 
vided for. The mold is now finished and blacked. 

In gating round columns, the gates are made on the ends, 
alongside the core on both sides of the mold. The iron fills 
the column poured in this manner with slacker iron than when 
the mold is gated along the sides. The mold being finished, 
the core is calipered and also the pattern. One-half the dif- 
ference in diameter between the two is the distance which 
chaplets must project above the surface of the mold in order 
to support the cores in the proper position. In selecting the 
chaplets, it should be remembered that with a large body of 
iron flowing into the mold, a much larger diameter is required 
than for smaller cores. For a thickness of casting of one and 
one-half inches in the column, we would use a chaplet with a 
stem about one-half inch diameter. Using a lighter chaplet 
will probably permit the core to settle as the chaplet would 
soften under the influence of hot iron and the weight of the 
core would cause it to crush and thus permit the core to settle. 
On the other hand, chaplets used in the cope must be stiff 
enough to withstand the pressure of the core being floated 



MOLDING COLUMNS 73 

upward by the entering iron. The chaplets are driven clear 
through the drag, into the bottom-board, which they should 
enter for a distance of about three-eighths of an inch. The 
number of chaplets to be placed in the cope and drag depends 
on the size and general arrangement of the cores. No fixed 
rule can be given except that it is better to have too many 
rather than too few chaplets. 

It is much easier with a long column, to make and set the 
core in two pieces rather than in one. The cores are butted 
together at the center of the mold, one end resting in a core- 
print at either end, the other end of each piece being supported 
at the middle of the mold by chaplets. To prevent the cores 
shifting sidewise, due to iron entering one side of the mold 
more rapidly than the other, chaplets are placed on either 
side of the cores at the ends where they are butted together. 
These chaplets are wedged in place by a wedge driven between 
the end of the chaplet and the side of the flask. After placing 
the chaplets, flour or sand is arranged on the joint to afford a 
tell-tale as to whether the cope bears on the cores or on the 
joint. In the ends of the flask at the joint are holes through 
which are shoved short rods into the vent holes in the end of 
the column cores, as shown at 0, Fig. 44. Sand is then rammed 
in the spaces / and J, after which the rod is removed, leaving 
a clear hole from the vent of the core to the outside of the mold. 
Two or more vent holes are sometines left in the core, depend- 
ing on its size, and as many vent rods are used as there are 
holes in the core. It is advisable to put a little paste on the 
ends of the cores before closing the mold in order to exclude 
iron which might find its way over the cores and thus stop 
the vent hole. 

The pouring boxes D and E are next placed and pouring 
basins P built. These boxes are fastened by driving a nail a 
short distance into the cope. In securing the cope, clamps are 
used and binders are placed to hold the core down through 
the agency of the chaplets, wedges being driven between the 
ends of the chaplets and the binders which are clamped across 
the top of the flask. 



74 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

The iron used in pouring should be cooled until it is quite 
dull for the larger and thicker columns, and it is advisable to 
feed the larger sizes of columns through the riser on the bracket 
to avoid shrinkage. Columns seldom shrink the full allowance 
— one-eighth inch to the foot — and for that reason column 
patterns are usually made with a smaller shrinkage allowance. 
It is important that the same iron mixture be used in pouring 
all the columns of a given lot, particularly ornamental 
columns; otherwise there will be a difference in the shrinkage, 
resulting in columns of varying lengths. 

When molding columns of the following approximate di- 
mensions — fourteen feet long, six inches wide, and sixteen 
inches deep, with a thickness of one-half to five-eighths inch 
— it is best to mold them on edge to avoid troubles due to 
the shrinkage curving the column in cooling. In many cases, 
castings with heavy parts must have these parts uncovered 
in order to permit them cooling more rapidly. The entire 
casting is then cooled more nearly at a uniform rate and 
warping is thereby avoided. 

The pattern for a fluted column is usually made in quarters, 
and the two quarters of each half are hinged together, where a 
space comes between the flute and the out- 
side, as shown in Fig. 46. A piece of flat iron 
is let into the joint side to hold the quarters 
apart and in this way form one-half of the 
pattern. The two halves are pinned together. 
teriTfor aFlutS ^^ molding, the cope and drag are molded as 
Column. a plain pattern. To draw the pattern, the 

screws holding the pieces of flat iron in place are removed 
and the two quarters closed together, sufficient material being 
cut away from each quarter to form a V-shaped opening the 
entire length of each half of the pattern. After closing together 
the pattern can be lifted out of the mold. 

The method of making cores for columns is described in 
Chapter XIII. 




CHAPTER VII 

MOLDING WITH SWEEPS 

The expense of pattern work for certain classes of castings 
of a regular form may be avoided by the use of a sweep. Such 
castings as circular boiler fronts, tank heads, pulley rims, and 
similarly shaped castings can easily be molded by this method. 
In addition, certain irregular-shaped castings may be partially 
swept out in green-sand molds, the balance of the mold being 
finished by means of pattern pieces. The sweep consists of a 
board, one edge of which is shaped to correspond with the 
surface of the casting and, on drawing it across the sand, it 
leaves a surface in the mold of the desired shape to make the 
casting. 

In Figs. 47-50, the method of molding a ribbed tank cover, 
by means of sweeps, is illustrated. The casting is a circular 
piece of dished cross-section with four ears, slotted to receive 
bolts, placed at equal intervals around its circumference. In 
molding it, two or three sweeps are used, according to the ideas 
of the molder, and no pattern work is necessary excepting for 
the four ears and for the ribs on the under side of the dished 
portion. 

In making the mold for this casting, the first operation is 
to set the spindle seat in the floor. The spindle seat consists 
of a socket for the spindle of the sweep, and is mounted on 
four cross arms, extending horizontally from the body of the 
socket. A hole is dug in the floor of such depth that the top of 
the spindle seat will come level with the floor line when the 
spindle seat is leveled in it. The spindle is placed in the seat 
and by means of spirit level is plumbed until it is truly vertical, 
wedges being driven under one leg or the other of the spindle 
seat, to throw the spindle in the necessary direction to bring it 
vertical. Sand is then rammed around the spindle seat until 

75 



76 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



the hole in the floor is filled. The sand around the spindle is 
then swept off level by means of the sweep. This is a plain 
piece of board about four inches wide and of any desired length 
and with a beveled lower edge. Attached to one end, by means 
of bolts, is a finger which fits snugly over the spindle, being 







Sweep Finget 
'Bolt 
[Cope Line of Castii^ 

H^ragLineof 
Casting 




ElG. 47 SWEEPING COPE SIDE PATTERN 





FIG.50 COPE SIDE PATTERN WITH RIBS IN PLACE 

.D ^E 




Fig. 48 SETTING SPINDLE SEAT 

Figs. 47-50. — Sweeping a Ribbed Cover Plate Mold. 



fastened thereto, and permits the sweep and the spindle to 
be revolved. The sand being rammed down around the 
spindle, the sweep is revolved and sweeps off any surplus 
sand, leaving a level and true bed of sand. 

The sweep finger is then removed from the spindle and a 
bottom-board with a hole in the center, lowered over the 



MOLDING WITH SWEEPS 77 

spindle, or the spindle may be removed from the seat, the 
bottom-board placed in position, and the spindle re-inserted 
in the seat through the hole in the bottom-board. The drag of 
the flask is then placed on the bottom-board with the joint up 
and is wedged up a short distance by means of wedges set from 
the inside of the flask. The sweep for forming the cope side of 
the mold is bolted to the sweep finger and leveled. The end 
of the sweep is allowed to rest on a trowel laid on the joint of 
the drag while it is being leveled so that on removing the 
trowel, the sweep has a clearance from the drag of the thickness 
of the trowel. In certain cases a guard is placed around the 
spindle to prevent sand from passing through the hole in the 
bottom-board. Such a guard is shown at G. 

Cinders are next spread over the bottom-board and covered 
with paper, after which the drag is rammed full of sand. When 
it has reached the proper height, the sweep is revolved, tracing 
in the sand a circular cavity of the exact shape of the bottom 
of the sweep. The sand should be rammed in the drag as hard 
as possible preparatory to this operation. When it has been 
struck off, after sweeping, it is slicked and parting sand is 
dusted over the joint, and sometimes over the face formed by 
the sweep. Instead of parting sand, paper is sometimes laid 
over the swept surface, being first wet in order to make it con- 
form to the exact shape of the mold. The use of paper makes 
a very clean parting, whereas, if parting sand is dusted on, it 
must later be brushed off which not only tends to make a rough 
surface on the casting, but, if not thoroughly removed, is liable 
to be washed off when the casting is poured and make dirt in 
the casting. 

The ribs which are to be cast in the cope and for which 
patterns are required, are placed as shown at / in the plan of 
the cope, Fig. 50, being held in place by a few nails pushed into 
the sand alongside of them. The spindle is then removed and 
the green-sand core / having been formed, a bunch of waste is 
placed in the hole left by the spindle. The cope of the flask is 
then placed in position, gaggers set, and the cope rammed up as 
for any ordinary mold, the patterns for the ears first being 



78 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

placed in position. After venting, the cope is turned over, the 
ribs and ear patterns drawn, and the edges, where the ribs 
unite with the body of the casting, filleted. The gates are 
prepared as desired and the cope is blackened with plumbago. 

The next operation is to sweep out the drag. It will be 
remembered that in sweeping out the drag first, what was 
known as the cope sweep was used. This was for the purpose 
of forming a recess the exact size of the projection of sand 
desired in the cope. In order to give thickness to the casting, 
the drag must be swept out to a greater depth than was done 
by the cope sweep. The drag sweep used is of exactly the same 
shape as the cope sweep, but is as much deeper than it as the 
casting is thick. The drag sweep is bolted to the sweep finger, 
the sand is dug out from over the bunch of waste, and the waste 
removed from the spindle hole, after which the spindle is set. A 
gutter is dug from the spindle to the outside of the flask of sufS- 
cient depth to permit the sweep to rest on the trowel on the 
joint. The sand is dug up to about three-quarters inch below 
the edge of the sweep, the sweep is revolved, and the surplus 
sand removed. The drag is thoroughly vented down to the 
cinder bed, after which facing sand, properly tempered and 
riddled, is thrown, a handful at a time, on the face of the mold 
where it will stick. The entire face of the mold is covered in 
this manner, the sweep being revolved as the sand is thrown, 
in order to form a surface of the desired shape. The face is 
examined for soft spots which are repaired as found and the 
spindle is removed. The mold is finished, blackened, gated, 
and made ready for pouring in exactly the same manner as 
any other mold. 

It may be well at this point to call attention to some things 
that should be borne in mind in sweeping molds. We have de- 
scribed above the method of sweeping a comparatively light 
casting. If instead the casting should weigh several tons 
rather than a couple of hundred pounds, the operations of 
molding would be the same, but the greater amount of metal 
would bring considerably greater strain on the face of the mold, 
particularly on the drag, and certain precautions must be ob- 



MOLDING WITH SWEEPS 79 

served to take care of this. After ramming up the cope as 
above described, the drag would be dug out in the same manner 
as for the lighter casting. The sweep is made so that it can be 
lowered three-quarters of an inch below what is to be the face 
of the mold or a third sweep is made, which will sweep out the 
sand to this depth. After digging out the sand from the drag, 
in the manner described, black sand is solidly rammed on the 
face to the line of this third sweep or to the edge of the sweep 
lowered below the level of the face. The surface thus formed is 
thoroughly vented, after which facing sand is thrown on as 
was done for the lighter casting, and the face of the mold is 
finally finished. 

The object of using this third sweep or its equivalent, and 
making a solid face on which facing sand is built, is to provide 
an evenly rammed surface for the mold. If there is any dif- 
ference in the strength of the mold, in different portions, the 
casting will be distorted. If the hard-rammed sand is left 
uneven when digging off the face and the facing sand simply 
thrown down on it as described, the molten iron filling the mold 
will soon discover the point at which this facing sand is the 
deepest and at this spot will cause the sand to give. In other 
places, where the sand was not cut away to the same depth, 
the facing will be harder and, therefore, the surface of the cast- 
ing will be found to be uneven, being at the proper level over 
the hard portions and having projections at those points where 
the facing sand was deepest and therefore soft. It is evident, 
therefore, that by ramming the surface at a depth of three- 
quarters of an inch below the face of the mold, and then 
building the face of the mold on this surface, the pressure of the 
molten metal is resisted evenly over the entire surface of the 
mold and a casting with a true surface is the result. The lack 
of care in making this firm under-surface, is often responsible 
for the failure to obtain good results with swept up molds. 

Oftentimes, patterns molded by bedding them in the floor 
or a flask, may have a portion of the mold made by a sweep 
and the balance made by placing the pattern on it and tucking 
the sand under those parts of the pattern which are irregular 



80 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

in shape. In this way, the pounding of the pattern into the 
bed is avoided. To illustrate this method of molding, we will 
consider the case of a tank bottom, eight feet long, five feet 
wide, and five-eighths inch thick, which is to be bedded in a 
flask. A bed of sand is first made on the floor where the center 
of the flask will rest, being made one foot wide and a trifle 
longer than the flask. This is made three inch thick and is 
trodden down firmly and is struck off with a straight edge. 
On this a bottom-board is placed and the drag set, being 
raised about five-eighths of an inch from the bottom-board by 
means of wedges driven between them from the inside of the 
flask. The bottom-board is then wedged up on one side until 
it has an inclination of about five-sixteenths inch in two feet. 
Cinders are next spread over the surface of the bottom-board 
and covered with paper, after which straight-edges G, Figs. 
51 and 52, are placed and raised to the desired height by means 
of bricks and wedges H, or they may be made of sufficient 
depth to rest directly on the bottom-board. They are leveled 
and secured at the desired height and sand rammed in around 
them to prevent their movement sideways. Black sand is 
then rammed over the cinders until it is about level with the 
top of the straight-edges. The sweep I is used with the notched 
side down, the bottom of the sweep being notched so that 
the edge / is five-eighths inch below the edge of the straight- 
edge, to sweep out the sand between the straight-edges to that 
depth. The bed of sand is then thoroughly vented down to 
the cinder bed, after which a mixture of seacoal facing, in the 
ratio of one seacoal and fourteen sand, thoroughly tempered 
and riddled, is spread on the bed between the straight-edges, 
until its surface is slightly above the straight-edge. The sweep 
with the straight side down is then used, a block of wood one- 
eighth inch thick being placed under each edge, and the sand 
swept level. The blocks are removed, and one man holding an 
end of the sweep on the straight-edge, a man on the other end 
strikes the straight-edge a blow with the opposite end. The 
sweep is moved gradually across the width of the mold, the 
sand being pounded down in this way, first by the man at one 



MOLDING WITH SWEEPS 



8i 



end and then by the man at the other. This process will ram 
the sand solidly, and a casting weighing many tons can be 
poured on it without danger of rough spots being formed, due 
to -soft places in the mold. The bed being made, the pattern 
is placed on it, weighted down, and sand rammed around the 
edges. The joint is made and the cope rammed up, the gates 
being set so that hot iron shall flow into the mold up to the 
last moment of pouring. 

It will be recollected that, at the beginning of operations, 
we wedged the bottom-board so that one side of the flask was 
higher than the other. This was done so that the iron, in 





Sweep 



Sand above H' 



Straight edge, G— • ' 
Cx H- 



:^ 



Figs. 51-52. — Molding a Tank Cover Plate with a Sweep. 



pouring, would fill the lower side of the mold first and rise 
along the face of the mold as it fills. If the mold were to be 
level, the iron would cover the entire lower surface of the mold 
before it reached the upper surface. The lower portion of the 
mold would require covering with liquid iron immediately or 
cold shuts would result which might ruin the casting. By 
causing the iron to flow into the mold from the higher side, this 
trouble will be avoided and a slacker iron can be used. A slight 
coating of talc over the entire face of the mold will assist in the 
rapid flow of the iron. 

We will now consider the case of a pattern which is to be 
molded in part with a sweep and the remainder tucked up. 
Referring to Fig. 53, the method of molding the face of the 
6 



82 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



segment of a large built-up fly-wheel is shown. In molding 
these segments, it is desired to have the face as nearly as 
possible on the same circle as the finished wheel, leaving merely 
enough stock for finishing. Two cast-iron guides A are ar- 
ranged to rest on timbers B in the flask and using a similar 
sweep to that described in the operation of making the tank 




Fig. 53. — Molding Segment of Built-up Fly-Wheel. 

bottom, a bed is made on which the pattern is to rest, the sweep 
being guided by the guides A. After the bed is made, it is 
vented to the cinder bed which has previously been made at 
the bottom of the flask and, on top of this bed, a face is built 
of facing sand on which the pattern is placed. In gating 
this mold, the pouring gates must be further apart for large- 
diameter wheels, say thirty feet, than for smaller wheels of 



^' ..,., 




Fig. 54. — Molding a Former for Sheet-Metal Work Without a 

Pattern. 



ten or fifteen feet diameter. With the smaller wheels, the iron 
flowing in and being given a quick turn due to the smaller di- 
ameter, will be given a whirling motion and will thereby cut the 
face of the mold, producing a scabbed casting, unless the mold 
is of the proper hardness. 

Fig. 54 shows the method of making the mold, known as 
a former for sheet-metal work, without a pattern. Two boards 



MOLDING WITH SWEEPS 83 

with the size of the inside of the former cut in them as shown at 
A are set in ends of the flask and sand rammed firmly between 
them and swept ofif level with the top of the inside of the guides 
A. The pieces F, shown by the cross-hatching, that were sawed 
out from the guides along the line A, are then replaced and 
sand rammed between these pieces and the ends of the flask. 
Damp parting sand is slicked on to the steeper parts of the 
face of the mold and dry sand dusted on the flat portion. The 
cope is now placed on the drag and rammed up and removed. 
The end pieces F are now removed and the sand dug out be- 
tween the guides. A sweep notched somewhat deeper than 
the thickness of casting desired as shown by the distance 
between the lines AD Is used to strike the sand ofT along the 
line D, the sand beirg f rmly rammed and vented. The face 
of the mold is built up to the line B, a sweep notched a 
distance equal to AB being used. The mold is finished and 
gated in the usual manner. 



CHAPTER VIII 

MOLDING CAR-WHEELS 

Cast-iron car-wheels having a chilled tread are cast in 
molds formed partly of molding sand and partly of cast-iron. 
The pattern used in forming the mold is what is termed a solid 
pattern, being made in one piece and having on it core-prints. 

The flask in which the wheel is molded and cast consists 
of three parts: The drag in which the flange side of the 
wheel is molded, the wheel being poured flange side down; 
on top of the drag, a cheek or chill of cast-iron is placed to 
form the tread and part of the flange; on top of the chill 
rests the cope in which the face of the wheel is molded. 
Over the center of this is a raised part in which the pouring 
basin is built. The flask rests on a perforated iron bottom- 
board through which the gases escape from the drag. The 
entire flask is of cast-iron and the cope is provided with radial 
bars of the shape of pattern to hold the sand in the cope. 
The cast-iron chill is chambered and connected to a water 
supply for cooling the chill if required. The raised part of the 
cope is provided with ears to take the tops of chaplets which 
hold down the lightening cores around the hub of the wheel. 

Oftentimes, before the wheels are molded the chill part of 
the flask is oiled in order to prevent it sweating, or gathering 
dampness from the warm sand. If this is carelessly done, or if 
the chill is warm, the oil may find its way to the bottom of the 
chill, leaving dry spots on the face on which moisture may 
condense and thus crack or make a bad place on the tread of 
the wheel. To avoid this, sometimes lead is mixed with the 
oil, or, instead of oil, lampblack and shellac are mixed, first 
killing the lampblack with alcohol. The chills are coated with 
this mixture, as one would black a pattern. 

In molding, the pattern is placed in the chill portion of the 

84 



MOLDING CAR-WHEELS 85 

flask with the flange side up, the face of the wheel sliding down 
in the chill a distance equal to the width of the tread. The 
flange of the wheel rests in a part of the chill which is formed 
to receive it. The drag is placed over the chill and the pattern 
is covered with a mixture of facing sand, consisting of ten 
parts of old molding sand from the heap, two parts of new 
molding sand, and one part seacoal. This mixture is riddled 
into the drag through a number six sieve, and the facing is 
laid up against the ribs and evened off to a depth of five- 
eighths inch over the pattern. The drag is then shoveled full 
of sand and peened around the edge of the flask, trodden over 
and butted off. The sand is next struck off flush with the top 
of the drag and about three-quarters of an inch of loose 
molding sand is thrown over the drag, after which it is vented 
and the bottom-board rubbed to a bearing. The bottom-board 
is then clamped to the flask and by means of a yoke, which 
is hooked to the trunnions on the chill, the flask is raised and 
rolled over. It is then lowered on to two rails. Care should be 
taken that these rails are level and at the same height, as it is 
important that a car-wheel mold should fill evenly with iron 
in order to avoid the chill cracking the wheel. 

After the gate-sticks are set to form pouring gates, facing 
sand is riddled over the pattern and heap sand is shoveled in 
until the cope is filled flush with the tops of the bars. The sand 
is then peened between the bars, after which the cope is heaped 
full of sand which is trodden down and then butted off". The 
pouring basin is built and the sand scraped from above the 
bars of the cope, and the cope is vented all over and the gate- 
sticks removed. Cope and chill are then bolted together and 
hoisted by means of the yoke, leaving the pattern in the drag. 

The cope is finished, blackened with silver lead, and the 
chaplets set to hold down the ring or lightening core. The chill 
is given a coating of lard oil, or of shellac and lampblack, or 
some one of the various mixtures made for application to chills. 
The pattern is then drawn from the drag, which is finished 
and blackened with silver lead, and a vent-wire is run down 
through the core-prints to the bottom-board, after which one 



86 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



of the ring cores shown in Fig. 55 is placed with the three pro- 
jections in the prints in the drag. The center core is next set. 
Usually the sand is first cut up to form a ring around the vent 
hole so that the core may press down on it and thus prevent the 
iron from running under the core into the vent hole. Before 



Wheel ElaTige 

Wheel Tread' . 




TOP OF MOLD 



PouringTKad 



j^arf Sawed 

Chamber in ^ z' *" ! ' 



Bottom Board 




Chilled Face 
of Wheel 

■YfTM vwtrgii rtf<Ynf|yt'^lfir"i '^«X)i-aS 



side of mold 
Fig. 55. — Car-wheel Mold and Chill. 

setting the core, a vent is made through the drag to the bot- 
tom-board. 

The cope and chill are next rolled over on the trunnions and 
lowered, chill down, on the drag, and the parts of the flask 
are clamped together. After the cope is closed, the chaplets 
are moved up and down to see that they bear properly on the 
top of the core they are to hold down. A wedge is placed 
between the top of the chaplet and the pouring basin part of 
the cope. 



MOLDING CAR-WHEELS 87 

After the wheels are poured, they are allowed to stand, 
usually until the molder has poured six, after which they are 
shaken out of the mold, hoisted out of the sand by grasping 
the rim of the wheel with a pair of tongs, and the wheel is 
moved by a hot-wheel train to the annealing pits. The heads 
are broken off with a ram and the center cores taken out. A 
crane, arranged to handle two wheels at a time by means of 
two pair of tongs, grasps the wheels in the center and moves 
them over the proper annealing pit in which sixteen wheels 
are placed at one time and annealed by their own heat. The 
wheels remain in the pit four days, being taken out on the 
fifth day. 

In pouring car-wheel molds, the iron can be poured either 
too hot or too cold and it is necessary that the mold fill evenly, 
otherwise chill cracks may result. Pouring the iron too hot 
will cause a variation in the depth of chill and it will also cause 
internal strains which are lessened or partly avoided when 
the iron is poured at the proper temperature, which, however, 
can only be learned by experience. The iron poured into the 
mold and running against the face of the chill is hardened on 
the tread of the wheel by being cooled rapidly, producing, as we 
find on breaking the wheel, a hard white surface which is about 
three-quarters of an inch deep, becoming mottled toward the 
inside. From the mottling, what are called legs or veins, 
extend into the gray-iron portion of the casting. 

While the pig iron used in the manufacture of car-wheels 
is usually number three, or three and one-half charcoal iron, 
mixed with a certain percentage of old car-wheels, occasionally 
steel scrap or coke iron is introduced in the mixture. The 
Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railroad adds one pound 
of eighty per cent ferromanganese to the quantity of iron 
required to pour one wheel, in order to deepen and toughen 
the chill. This is added to the iron in the pouring ladle. 

In the past it has been considered that the greater the 
amount of coke iron used in the mixture, the more distinct 
was the line of demarkation between the chill and the gray 
iron in the casting. The wheel in running would constantly 



88 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

strike on one spot in passing from rail to rail and the shock 
would finally cause the chilled part to separate from the gray- 
iron center on account of the mottling and legging not being 
sufficient to properly hold the two parts together. The gray 
iron would finally crumble out and leave a hole in the wheel. 

When in use the application of the brake to the wheel 
causes the generation of heat. To determine the ability of 
the wheel to stand up under the application of the brake, the 
following test is made : From a number of wheels one is selected 
and placed on a green-sand bed with the flange of the wheel 
down. A dam of molding sand is built around it, leaving a 
space of about one and one-eighth inches between the dam and 
wheel. Into this space molten iron is poured, being taken from 
the cupola under the specifications of the Master Car Builders' 
Association, and poured into the channelway in two places. 
The wheel is left for a specified time, after which it is removed 
and examined, and from the action of this test wheel under 
treatment, the lot of wheels may be accepted or rejected. This 
test is known as the thermal test. 

A second test, to determine the strength of the wheel, is 
made by dropping a two-hundred-pound weight a distance of 
nine feet on the center of a 625-pound wheel, the wheel 
being placed flange down on an anvil supporting only the rim. 
The wheel must sustain ten such blows to be accepted. A 
675-pound wheel must sustain twelve blows, with a drop to 
the weight of ten feet, while a 725-pound wheel must sus- 
tain twelve blows from a height of twelve feet. 

Formerly car-wheel foundries were equipped with jib cranes 
around which the wheels were molded and poured. The iron 
was brought to the floors in wheel ladles which were hoisted 
by a crane for pouring into the molds. With this arrangement 
of circular floors much space was necessarily unoccupied. 
The more modern wheel foundries have adopted what is known 
as the straight-line system which reduces the unoccupied space 
to a minimum. Typical straight-line plants are those of the 
Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railroad at Milwaukee, Wis., 
and that of the Dixon Car Wheel Foundry, Houston, Texas. 



MOLDING CAR-WHEELS 89 

At the Milwaukee plant, the wheel flasks are arranged in 
straight lines across the foundry, resting on two rails, spaced 
twelve feet centers. The cupolas deliver to large reservoir 
ladles which are electrically tipped. In front of the reservoir 
ladles is a track extending the length of the foundry, on which 
two ladle trains are electrically operated from in front of the 
ladles to opposite ends of the foundry. The movement of the 
ladle trains and the tipping of the reservoir ladle is controlled 
from a pulpit at the cupola. Each car in the ladle train carries 
two ladles, which can be lifted from the car at the various 
pouring floors by means of overhead trolley hoists over each 
floor. The molds are poured from the ladles suspended from 
the trolleys. 

After pouring six wheels, the men begin to shake them out 
of the molds and to deliver them by means of the overhead 
trolleys to the hot-wheel cars on the hot-wheel tracks extend- 
ing the length of the foundry to the annealing pits where the 
pouring heads are broken from the wheels and the center 
cores knocked out. 

In addition to car-wheels, many different styles of castings 
are produced in molds made partly of molding sand and partly 
of iron. Certain cotton-machinery castings are made in iron 
molds in order that the wearing surfaces will be chilled and 
thus have a harder skin as the chilling of the hot iron hardens 
it, due to the quick cooling. The common gray-iron casting, 
however, is not hardened to any great depth by pouring it 
against an iron surface, if the casting is of any great thickness. 
In order to obtain a chilled surface of any depth it is necessary 
to have an iron of such chemical analysis as will be affected 
by the chill forming a portion of the mold. See Chapter XXIII 
for analyses of irons for use in chilled castings. 



CHAPTER IX 

SKIN-DRIED MOLDS 

The skin-dried mold is made of green sand with a facing 
composed of varying mixtures of sand and flour and after 
completion the surface is dried by heat to a depth ranging from 
one-half inch to several inches. Thus the skin-dried mold 
occupies a place midway between the green-sand mold and 
the dry-sand mold. The class of castings which are poured in 
skin-dried molds, will include locomotive cylinders and station- 
ary engine frames and cylinders. Later in this chapter we 
will consider the making of a skin-dried mold for a Tangye 
engine frame. 

The molds are dried in several different manners. The 
smaller molds may be placed in an oven and baked until the 
surface has been dried to the required depth. In the natural- 
gas belt, heat is applied to the mold by means of a portable 
gas torch, and, the gas- being under pressure, the flame may be 
directed against any portion or into a deep pocket of the mold 
as desired. Where gas is not available, the oil torch is fre- 
quently used for this purpose, providing compressed air is sup- 
plied to the foundry. The oil torch has the special advantage of 
regulation of the flame; thus an intensely hot blue flame may be 
used or a moderately hot large yellow flame, or any flame be- 
tween these two extremes. Either crude or kerosene oil may be 
used, depending on the air pressure available. Sixty-five pounds 
per square inch is required for this work with crude oil while 
but twenty pounds is necessary with kerosene. In using the 
oil torch, some experience is necessary to obtain the best 
results. Too sharp and too quick a heat applied to the face of 
the mold, may cause the sand to blister and fall. Heat should 
be applied gradually and its intensity slowly increased as the 
mold dries out. After a time, a heat of considerable intensity 

90 



SKIN-DRIED MOLDS QI 

may be applied without danger of burning the face of the 
mold. 

Where neither natural gas nor the oil torch is available, fire 
baskets may be used for drying the mold. These are baskets 
made of iron in which is built a fire of charcoal or gas coke. The 
fire is built in them outside the mold and, when it is well alight, 
the basket is lowered a little at a time until it is at the proper 
distance from the bottom of the mold. If lowered too close to 
the face of the mold immediately, the mold will be damaged 
and a great deal of patching necessitated. When the mold is 
partly dried, the process can be hurried by building a moderate 
fire, and covering the mold. 

The sand mixtures used to form the face of the mold vary 
with the locality. Either fire sand or ground silica rock is 
added to the facing mixture, depending on the kind of work. 
If neither is available, the facing mixtures should contain 
lake or hill sand. The addition of a highly refractory and 
coarser sand, to the ordinary molding sand, not only produces 
a more porous-faced mold through which steam will escape 
while the face of the mold is being dried, but it also assists the 
molding sand in resisting the action of metal. The body of a 
skin-dried mold should be well vented to carry off the steam 
and gases generated in drying. Large green-sand hanging cores 
are often skin-dried and scabbing thereby avoided. 

Molding an Engine Bed in a Skin-Dried Mold 

Fig. 56 shows an engine frame of the Tangye type which 
can be cast to advantage in a skin-dried mold. As there will 
be considerable side strain in pouring a castingof this character, 
necessitating a heavy flask and considerable special rigging, the 
mold will be made in a pit. The pit is prepared as described in 
Chapter V, and, when ready, the pattern is leveled in position 
by means of wedges and sand is rammed to within a few inches 
of the backbone A of the pattern. Fig. 57. Facing sand is 
then tucked and rammed below and around the sides of the 
backbone and continued under the remainder of the bed. 



92 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

When enough is In place to hold the pattern in position, the 
pattern is Hfted from the pit and the surfaces already finished 
are well vented down to the cinder bed, the sides and edges 
of the backbone are nailed, and the face is finished. The 
pattern is then replaced and is faced and rammed up with 
black sand to a point where the iron plate supporting the main 
core can be placed under the core-print. This plate should 
extend some distance on either side of the core-print into the 
sand as shown in the detail Fig. 58. After these plates are 
placed, facing and ramming are continued until the sand is 
high enough to permit placing the gate cores B, Fig. 57, 
between the jaws C C of the pattern. These are bedded in the 
sand and a cinder bed D placed over them, a vent pipe being 
inserted in the cinder bed for the escape of gas. Pouring gate 
cores F and upright gate-sticks G are placed at the end of the 
pattern. Iron rings are set around these to re-enforce them to 
resist the strain generated in the sand while pouring. When 
the sand has reached the round portion of the pattern, it is 
vented below the pattern and the vents are covered with 
cinders which, in turn, are covered with paper. The pattern 
is faced and sand rammed in until it has reached the floor line. 
Referring now to the detail Fig. 58, the method of inserting rods 
to strengthen the face of the mold is shown. These rods should 
extend to within about two inches of the face of the mold, there 
being four layers of rods set in a pattern of this depth. A 
cinder bed extending beyond the end of the cope is built along- 
side each edge of the pattern at C, Fig. 58, a short distance 
below the floor line. From this cinder bed vents are made 
with a large vent-wire down to the lower cinder bed as shown. 
In placing these cinder beds, they are well rammed with the 
butt of the rammer in order to assist in resisting the side strain 
when the mold is poured. 

The inside of the pattern is a succession of deep pockets of 
sand to form the cope side and, in order to lift out these pockets 
of sand from the pattern, skeletons or grids are made to con- 
form to the face of the pattern as shown in Fig. 57. These grids 
are secured to the cope by bolts /. The cope is lowered into 



MOLDING AN ENGINE BED 



93 




94 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



place, being made wide enough to rest on upright timbers 
which extend up from the binders in the pit bottom. It is 
guided by stakes driven into the sand and the bolts / for hold- 
ing the grids are then placed. The cope is next removed to- 
gether with the skeleton, and parting sand is dusted on the 
joint and facing sand is placed inside the pattern to a depth 
five-eighths inch. The skeletons are then lowered into place 




Fig. 58. — Mold of End of Pattern. 



and rapped down. Gaggers are set in the skeletons exactly 
as though these were the barred cope flask, and on top of each 
skeleton pieces of joist are set to come up level to the top of 
the pattern. 

A water pocket is to be formed in the casting underneath 
the jaws C C by means of the core K. On this core are four 
prints over each of which the gas pipe / is set extending to 
the top of the cope. These gas pipes are rammed up in the 
cope with the sand. The inside of the pattern is faced and 
backed with black sand which is rammed to the point where 
the green-sand core extends under the ribs A, Fig. 59, also 
shown at L, Fig. 57. This rib extends into the inside of the 
cope and causes an overhanging core to extend all around the 
pattern. The inside of this flange being faced, five-eighths inch 
rods are laid from the body of the hanging sand on the cope 
side to the sand under the flange, to support it. This sand is 



MOLDING AN ENGINE BED 95 

vented, the vents being brought out four inches away from 
the pattern and the vents covered with cinders, as shown at 
M. We now have a body of sand covering the skeletons and 
forming the inside of the pattern. A long channel is scooped 
out in the center of each pocket and these are vented to this 
channel which is then covered with cinders and filled with 
sand up to the floor level. The joint is made, parting sand 
dusted on, and the cope flask replaced. The bolts / are at- 
tached to the flask, the pipes / and the gate-sticks set to the 
cinder beds, and the joists in the pockets are wedged down to 
hold the skeletons firmly in position. The cope is gaggered 
and rammed with successive rammings of sand in the usual 
fashion. The cope is hoisted off with the pockets of sand, 
forming the inside pattern, suspended from it. It is lowered 
on to trestles and the sides propped up with pieces of joist 
to insure it against springing on account of the weight of sand 
suspended from it. The flanges A, Fig. 59, are made loose and 
are drawn out of the mold with the cope. They are now re- 
moved from the sand and the cope is finished, after which it is 
skin-dried to a depth of an inch and a half. When finishing 
the cope, the edges of the pockets are nailed wherever there is 
any liability of the cope cutting on account of the flow of iron. 
A gas or oil flame is used for drying, care being taken to direct 
the flame into the pockets in the cope formed by the various 
ribs. 

The pattern in the floor is next boshed, rapped, and drawn 
from the sand. The pieces D, Fig. 58, are loose and are re- 
moved from the sand after the main portion of the pattern is 
drawn. The various edges, where there is a liability to wash- 
ing, are nailed as is also the face of the mold near the gate. 
The mold is then sprayed with molasses water and skin-dried 
with fire baskets, as described earlier in the chapter. 

The main core is made in two halves, the core-print being 
formed by a loose piece in the core box. The two halves of 
the core are bolted together with the bolts R, but before this 
is done, the core S, which is made in a special core box, is 
bolted to the upper half of the main core by the bolt T. The 



96 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

vent from this core is led to the vent of the main core. Each 
half of the main core is made on a solid cast-iron core arbor 
which takes the strain due to the heavy weight of the core. 
The bottom of the core is rodded as shown at U to hold it to 
the arbors. This is not required with the upper half which 
is not suspended. The cores forming the openings in the side 
of the bed E and C, Fig. 56, are first placed, after which the 
main core is set. A special stop-off piece B, Fig. 59, is used to 
form the side of the mold at that point and, after it is placed, 
a bed of cinders W, Fig. 57, is made and vented with the pipe 
X. A spud or piece of timber is set on either end of the core 
arbor, being cut off level with the floor. Sand is now stopped 
in over the end of the core at B, the regular facing mixture 
being used against the stop-off piece, backed up with black 
sand rammed firmly against it. The stop-off core Y at the 
opposite end of the mold is placed as shown, cinders and the 
vent pipe for venting the core are laid in, and black sand ram- 
med in back of it. After the core Y is set, the joint between 
it and the sides of the mold is filled in and dried. The core K, 
forming the water box between the jaws of the pattern, is now 
placed in the cope. This core is made with a staple in each 
round core-print, over which, it will be recollected, the gas pipes 
/ were set, and rammed into the cope. Wires are inserted 
through these staples and threaded through the gas pipes and 
drawn tight to bring the core against the chaplets A B. The 
wires are then fastened to a rod at the upper end of the gas pipe 
and this rod is wedged up to hold the core in position against 
the chaplets. The pipes / also act as vents to the core. The 
edges of the pipe are covered with paste and a small amount 
is placed inside the pipes to prevent iron entering. Vent-wires 
are inserted in the pipe, after which they are filled with sand 
and the vent-wire withdrawn. 

The bolt cores D, Fig. 56, are set in the prints and the shelf 
core. Fig. 59, C, is placed, after which the cope is tried on. In 
Fig. 56 prints are shown for the bolt cores on the cope side of 
the pattern. The author considers this poor practice and 
recommends having the cope side flush, so that the cope will 



MOLDING AN ENGINE BED 



97 




2; 

H 
H 

< 



98 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

bear on the top of the cores which should be steadied with 
nails set alongside the cores. This will avoid pulling 'down 
part of the cope when lifting if after trying on the pattern. 
The name-plate core is next set, after which the cope is once 
more tried on, and, everything being satisfactory, the joint is 
pasted wherever the casting comes near the side of the cope, 
and the mold finally closed. 

It will be observed that the pouring gates are outside the 
cope, as this makes a shorter cope and one easier to handle. 
The upright gates, it will be remembered, were ringed and 
rammed up with facing sand which is vented to permit the 
escape of gas from the gates. 

Binders are now placed across the top of the cope and it 
is fastened firmly to the floor by means of the hook bolts shown 
connecting with the eye-bolts with the binders in the pit. One 
binder is placed across the spud G H in the cope, which is 
wedged down to hold the end of the main core in position. 
The spud at the opposite end is wedged down below the end 
of the flask. The facing sand is next scraped away from the 
upright pouring gates, where dry, and replaced with fresh 
sand. Runner boxes are placed in position and runners built 
to pour the casting from each end, cores being placed in the 
bottom of each runner box for the iron to fall on as it is poured. 
Heavy risers were placed on either side of the pattern in the 
cope for feeder heads and these are built out above the cope 
in order to give a greater head. Pieces of oiled paper are 
placed in the vent pipe to be lighted when pouring for purpose 
of igniting the escaping gases. Holes are dug at the ends of 
the mold, back of the runners, to permit the lip of the ladle 
in pouring to be as close as possible to the runner. In pour- 
ing, the ladle at the left which feeds the deepest part of the 
casting, is first started and afterward the ladle at the right. 

The mold is filled so that the iron flows up in the risers to 
nearly the top of the cope, and pouring is stopped when the 
iron shows a tendency to rise above this point in the riser. 
They are kept covered until the escaping gas indicates that 
the mold is nearly filled, and the iron remaining in the run- 



MOLDING AN ENGINE BED 99 

ners is then depended on to completely fill the mold. To 
provide against the emergency of iron overflowing the top of 
the cope and finding its way into the vents, flow-ofifs are pro- 
vided. The casting should be churned for some considerable 
time and the iron fed to the risers during the operation must 
be extremely hot. The direction of flow of the molten iron 
filling the mold is shown by arrows in the gates. 

Shortly after the mold is filled, the iron will become set 
in the pouring gates and the runners may then be broken 
away and broken up while hot. When the casting has cooled 
somewhat, the binders are removed as is also the rod holding 
the water core in place. The nuts holding the skeletons are 
removed, the cope is hoisted, and the sand knocked out and 
allowed to fall on top of the casting, which will require about 
two days to cool off sufficiently to permit its being lifted from 
the sand. 



CHAPTER X 

DRY-SAND MOLDS 

Dry-sand molds are used for intricate castings in which 
the walls must be of a positive thickness or in which large 
bodies of metal must remain fluid for a considerable period of 
time. Dry-sand molds are molds made of a special mixture of 
rather coarse sand which are afterward dried or baked in an 
oven. Molds treated in this fashion possess great rigidity and 
will stand rather severe usage. After being baked, they may 
be poured in any position without damage to the mold. Dry- 
sand molds are principally used for steam- and gas-engine 
cylinders, pump, air compressor and hydraulic cylinders, 
printing-press cylinders and rolls, rolling mill rolls, anvil 
blocks, engine beds, and similar heavy castings. The following 
mixtures are given by West* as suitable sands for the different 
classes of castings: — 

Large spur gears: 12 pails of lake sand, 12 pails strong 
loam sand, 4 pails molding sand, i to 10 pails of coke dust, i}i 
pails of flour; wet with water. 

Large bevel wheels: one part molding sand, one part Jersey 
sand, one part seacoal to 16 parts of sand mixture; wet with 
thin claywash. 

Engine cylinders: 6 pails molding sand, i]4 pails of lake 
or bank sand, 30 parts sand mixture to one part of flour; wet 
with claywash. 

Another mixture for cylinders is 4 parts of fair loam, one 
part of lake sand, one part coke dust or seacoal to 14 parts 
sand mixture; wet with claywash according to the clayeyness 
of the loam. The backing used with this facing is 5 parts loam 
and I part lake sand; wet with claywash. A good mixture for 
ordinary work is: i part molding sand, i part bank sand; wet 

* " American Foundry Practice," p. 353. 
100 



DRY-SAND MOLDS 1 01 

with claywash and use i part of flour to 30 parts of mixture 
or I part blacking to 20 parts of mixture. 

A mixture with a clay loam for cylinder castings is as 
follows: 6 parts strong loam sand, 6 parts lake sand, 2 parts 
old dry sand, flour i to 40, seacoal i to 14; wet with water. 
A mixture used for rolling mill rolls: 2 parts old dry sand, i 
part baked sand, seacoal i to 12, flour i to 18; make as wet as 
can be worked with claywash. 

The author has had good results with a dry sand composed 
of equal parts of coarse molding sand and coarse New Jersey 
fire sand. Flour or rye meal is added to this mixture in the 
proportion of i part flour to 14 parts mixture. The mass is 
mixed thoroughly and then dampened with molasses water 
made of i part molasses and 16 parts water. If fire sand is not 
available, ground silica rock may be substituted. 

In molding, the pattern is faced with one of the above 
mixtures and the facing is backed up with what has become a 
burnt mixture of the facing wet with clay water, or with com- 
mon black sand. The mold itself is usually made in the same 
manner as a green-sand mold. The flask, however, especially 
for large castings, is somewhat different, being made of iron 
with slotted holes in the side as shown in Fig. 64. These holes 
are for the purpose of venting the mold, five-sixteenths inch 
vent rods being inserted through them, extending into the 
mold to within a short distance of the pattern. 

A typical dry-sand job is the molding of a Corliss engine 
cylinder, the various operations being shown in Figs. 60-69. 
When pouring such cylinders, they are usually poured with 
the steam ports vertical in order to give cleaner and sounder 
valve seats than would be obtained were the molds poured in 
any other position. In molding, the pattern^. Fig. 62, is 
placed on the mold-board with the drag around it, joint side 
down. Gate-sticks B forming upright pouring gates are set 
and held the proper distance away from the cylinder pattern 
by the sprue C. The pattern is faced with the dry-sand 
mixture, which is backed up with old sand, wet with clay 
water. The gate-sticks are faced and the outside of the pattern 



102 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

faced and rammed up with successive rammings of sand, vent 
rods being introduced through the slotted holes as the flask 
is filled, and afterward withdrawn, leaving vents throughout 
the mold. 

When the top of the steam and exhaust chests on the 
pattern are reached, deep pockets will be formed by the exten- 
sions of the chest above the round of the barrel. In these are 
placed rods D, Fig. 63, which have been clay washed, to 
support these pockets. The sand is vented around the rods. 
A similar procedure is followed when the wrist-plate seat E 
is encountered. On reaching the main core-print, an iron 
plate is laid on the print and rammed in the mold to support 
the heavy center core. Facing sand is covered over the pattern 
and heap sand rammed in, in successive rammings, until the 
flask is filled. The remaining operations are carried out as 
they would be for any green-sand mold. 

After the joint is made and the cope placed in position, 
with the gate-sticks and gaggers set, the cope is rammed up 
with vent rods in the side. On top of each port post, a large 
plug of the same size as the top of the core-print is placed and 
rammed up and, on each end flange of the cylinder, a riser is 
placed to serve as a flow-off. Screws for securing the cope 
half of the pattern in the flask are inserted, the cope is faced, 
and heap sand shoveled in to fill the flask and rammed up. 
Bars are shoved through the eyes of the screw-eyes screwed 
into the pattern and wedged in place and the cope is lifted 
off. The screw-eyes are removed and the holes left by them 
are stopped up, after which the joint is made and the pattern 
is boshed with molasses water, it then being rapped and drawn. 
Usually, in making the joint, the corners are nailed and 
sometimes the entire joint around the edge of the pattern is 
nailed, since there are but few bars used in the cope of a dry- 
sand mold. 

In finishing a dry-sand mold, breaks at the corners should 
be repaired by first placing nails to secure the sand, after which 
the broken sand should be replaced with the fingers, and 
shaved to the shape of the mold as closely as possible. Should 



DRY-SAND MOLDS IO3 

wet mud be laid on these breaks with a trowel, it will scab off 
when the mold is poured and injure the casting. After the 
mold is finished and before it is baked, blacking is applied. 
The blacking is mixed to about the consistency of cream and 
applied evenly over the entire surface of the mold with the 
swab. After it has set for a few moments, it is slicked with the 
trowel which is held at a slight angle to the surface. If the 
trowel is allowed to lie flat against the surface when the black- 
ing is slicked, a part of the face of the mold will follow the 
trowel when it is lifted. Larger molds are best blacked green, 
that is before baking, while the smaller sizes are more satis- 
factory if blacked after drying. After blacking a green mold, 
it should be brushed over with molasses water to smooth the 
blacking and give a smooth surface to the casting. The gate 
is cut and the mold placed in a proper oven for baking, the 
oven used being one adapted for core work. 

Referring to Figs. 68 and 69, the method of making the 
cores for the exhaust chambers is shown. In making this 
core, the iron plate A is placed on trestles and over this four 
smaller plates B are set, with dryers at each end. The skeleton 
or grid D is laid on these plates with the part which is to go in 
the dryer in place. The skeleton core box E is placed in posi- 
tion and core sand tucked under the skeleton and rammed 
around it. Iron rods, of at least one-quarter inch diameter, 
are inserted through holes in the end of the core box and rest 
on the vent rods lying in the post part of the core box at F. 
The core box is then rammed full and swept off on top with 
the sweep G. The core is hollowed to form the proper thick- 
ness of the cylinder barrel by means of the round surface H 
on the sweep. The ports / are next rammed up. Pieces of 
wire of the proper length, inserted in the post part of the core 
box, support the sand forming the core for the port at /. The 
mixture used in making this portion of the core usually has 
seacoal added in order to leave a clean port in the casting. 
Nails are placed along the top edge of the core and it is vented 
in the same manner as a mold. The top is slicked lightly and 
the vent rods withdrawn. The screws / are removed and the 



104 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



portion K lifted off, leaving exposed the end of the core. The 
holes left by the vent rods are then filled with paste to prevent 
iron working into them later. The screws L are withdrawn 



FIG. 69. TOP OF EXHAUST CORE BOX 




FL&.62. END OF PATTERJN IN DHAQ 

Exhaust chest 



FIS.68. SIDE VIEW OF PATTERN IN DRAQ 



Chaplets^R 



P 



Vi 



at;-.---.T^jC--^ 



\r 




FlG.64. EXHAUST CHEST CORES IN DRAQ 



FlG.65 STEAM EXHAUST CHEST AND 




Fig. 66. RUNNER AND FLOWOFF BUILT, SIDE VIEW. 



FlG.67. READY FOR POURING. 



Figs. 60-69. — Molding a Corliss Engine Cylinder in Dry Sand. 

and the sides M removed as is also the stop piece N. The 
object of this piece is to determine the proper length of the 
core and it can be set at any desired point in the core 



DRY-SAND MOLDS IO5 

box. There now only remains portion of the core box 
to be removed and the core remains in the dryer C and on 
the plates B. The core is then finished all over and, if 
of large size, is blackened before being dried. The steam- 
chest core is made in one piece with the post and port at 
each end. 

The mold, when baked, is placed in position for pouring. 
The drag is examined and, if properly dried, is cleaned out and 
the steam-chest core tried in. The vent hole in the bottom of 
the post is stopped to prevent iron working under the core and 
rising in the vents. This vent should be left open until the 
core is ready for use, as it is then possible to make sure that 
all vents are open. The exhaust-chest core is set after the 
steam-chest core. This core is in two pieces and a partition 
is formed in the middle of the exhaust chest. Consequently 
each core has but a single post at one end to support it and it 
must be supported at the opposite end by chaplets. The barrel 
center or main core is now placed by means of the crane and 
is set in between the port cores as shown in Fig. 65. 

When the ports of the exhaust-chest core were made, staples 
were set in the back of the core where the center of the nozzle 
cores were to come. Wires are twisted and passed through 
the staples and holes in the center of the nozzle cores T, Fig. 65, 
and the exhaust-chest core is drawn tightly against the nozzle 
core by passing the wire through the side of the flask at U, 
Fig. 64, and twisting it around a rod which is then wedged out 
from the side of the flask. A vent is arranged to bring the 
gas from the nozzle cores, this being cut usually while the mold 
is green. Flour is next placed on the joint of the mold and 
chaplets set on the exhaust-chest cores, after which the cope is 
tried on. 

It will be recollected that when the cope was rammed, a 
large plug was rammed up on top of each post core-print. 
When the cope is hoisted, a man looks through each of these 
holes and guides the tops of the posts of the chest cores into 
their proper print. This operation requires four men, while 
two more are necessary to guide the flask itself until it reaches 



I06 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

the long guide pins on the flask. When the cope Is lowered to a 
bearing it is clamped with a few clamps which are immediately 
removed and the cope once more lifted off, after which the 
mold and cores are examined to see that no portion is crushed 
by reason of the cope bearing too hard on the drag. It being 
determined that the mold bears satisfactorily, as shown by 
the flour on the joint, a line of thick paste is laid along the 
joint adjoining the edge of the flask and over the ends of the 
nozzle cores to prevent iron flowing into the vents. After the 
mold has been finally closed, the pouring basin is built and 
flow-off channels arranged from the risers. 

When building the pouring basin of green sand it is usual 
to place a dry-sand core at the bottom of the basin at the point 
where the iron will fall from the lip of the ladle, since iron 
falling on green sand may wash the bottom of the basin into 
the mold with the first rush of iron. After the pouring basin 
is filled and the gates are choked, there is littl.e danger of dirt 
entering with the iron. It is also usual to make that portion 
of the basin, into which the iron is poured, somewhat deeper 
than the basin at the entrance to the gate. 

The clamps are tightened on the flask while the paste on 
the joint is still green, and iron plates with a hole in them are 
set over the top of the post cores, the holes in the plates co- 
inciding with the vent holes in the cores. Waste is tucked 
around the plates to prevent sand from falling into the mold 
and a rod of the proper length is set on top of the plate, as 
shown at V, Fig. 66. A piece of pipe W is connected with the 
hole and sand is rammed around the pipe and rod and a binder 
X clamped across them by means of clamps^ B. A wedge is 
driven between the binder and the rod V to hold the chest cores 
down. Gases escaping from the vent reach the air through 
the pipes W. Both drag and cope of the flask are provided 
with chipping pieces which cause a space to be left between the 
two at the joint when the mold is closed. Molding sand wet 
with molasses water is rammed in these spaces to prevent iron 
from breaking out when the mold is poured. A space is also 
left around the barrel core in order that when setting the core, 



DRY-SAND MOLDS I07 

it may be raised or lowered to give the right thickness of cyHn- 
der walls. In placing this core, paste was placed just inside of 
the edge of the flask, which dried quickly due to the warmth of 
the core. Before finally closing the cope, the top of the barrel 
core should be covered with a thick paste, immediately adjoin- 
ing the end next to the flask. Thus with a reasonably tight 
fit for the center core, the paste will prevent any damp sand 
rammed between the core and mold from finding its way into 
the mold. The space around the core should be rammed with 
sand and the core barrel held down by wedges between it and 
the flange of the flask on the cope side. After the sand is 
rammed in, a plate C, Fig. 67, is rubbed to a bearing, pegs of 
iron D are inserted in the holes in the iron core barrel, and 
wedges E placed between the pegs and the plate. This insures 
against iron finding its way out around the core barrel. The 
method of building flow-off troughs is shown at F, Figs. 66 
and 67. The runner box is next set and weighted with pig 
iron. This is the common practice, although the author 
recommends using a runner box with flanges on the lower 
edge by means of which it may be either clamped or bolted to 
the flask. 

Cylinders molded in the manner described above, may 
weigh anything from a couple of hundred pounds to several 
tons, and the flask and other rigging must be in proportion 
to the weight of cylinder to be cast. Flasks for this work must 
be rigid as there is considerable strain brought on them from 
the molten iron in the mold and it is better to have a flask 
heavier than necessary than one which is so light that there is 
danger of its springing when the mold is poured. The heat of 
the iron must be in proportion to the size of the mold which is 
to be poured. A slack, dirty iron will seldom produce a satis- 
factory cylinder, while a heavy cylinder poured with hot iron 
is liable to be equally unsatisfactory. No general rule can 
be given to cover this point nor can one be given to govern the 
rate at which the iron should be poured. If iron is poured too 
slowly in a large cylinder, cold shuts may result, while too rapid 
pouring may wash certain portions of the mold away and 



I08 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

produce defective castings. Experience is necessary to obtain 
the best results in these two respects. 

Cyhnders of this character are usually poured at the 
bottom and as near as prudent to the exhaust-chest post, as 
imperfections can be repaired on the exhaust side which would 
be impossible to remedy on the steam side. As there is usually 
more room around this post core, iron entering at this point 
has a better chance to float the dirt to the top of the cope, 
and it is customary to allow an extra amount of metal for 
finishing in order to take care of the dirt which may rise in 
these posts. Oftentimes, considerable excess metal is cast 
here to act as a shrinkhead or feeder. When pouring begins, 
the vents should be lighted and, when the mold is filled, a 
certain amount of iron should be allowed to flow through some 
of them. This is done to flow out any gas generated in the 
mold which may cause the iron to kick away from the surface, 
and it will thereby be enabled to lie more closely to the mold 
and thus give a better casting. If the cylinder is at all large, 
it should be churned at the flow-offs and it may also require 
churning on the port posts. 

When pouring cylinders of slide-valve engines, the iron is 
usually made to enter at the lowest point so that the incoming 
iron will flow into the iron already in the mold and thus 
restrain the dirt from entering. These cylinders are cast with 
the valve seat down and a sounder and cleaner seat is thereby 
obtained, providing the mold has been properly made. 

Molding Printing-Press Cylinders in Dry Sand 

Printing-press cylinders are molded in dry-sand molds and 
afford an interesting illustration of the use of sectional flasks. 
The flasks are of iron, circular, and as many are used superim- 
posed upon one another as are necessary to give a flask of the 
requisite height. This class of work is interesting in that the 
same pattern may be used for cylinders of different lengths, 
the pattern being made of sufficient length to answer for the 
longest casting required. On account of the height of the 



DRY-SAND MOLDS lOQ 

completed mold in this class of work, it is usually convenient 
to make the mold in the pit in which the mold is poured. 

The pattern used is shown in Fig. 70 and the completed 
mold with the cores in place is shown in Fig. 71. The sections 
of the flask are short cylinders with a flange at the top and 
bottom, accurately machined so that when the various sections 
are set one on the other, the mold will stand true and vertical. 
A lip B, Fig. 71, is cast on the interior of each section to retain 
the sand which is rammed in the flask. Each section is pro- 
vided with a pair of trunnions C set in a boss D which is pinned 
to the flask with loose pins. Provision is made for bolting the 
various sections of the flask together at the flanges and holes 
are drilled in the circumference to act as vents to the mold. 

Referring now to Fig. 70, the operation of commencing a 
mold is shown. An iron bottom-board G is bolted to the first 
section of the flask and is placed on a solid bearing in the pit. 
Heap sand is shoveled into the bottom of the flask and when 
this is at the proper height, facing sand is rammed over it and 
the bottom end of the pattern is bedded into it. The facing 
sand used is a mixture of old and new sand mixed in the pro- 
portions of one part old sand, one part fire sand, and one part 
coarse molding sand. With this is mixed flour in the propor- 
tion of one part flour and fourteen parts sand mixture. This 
is wet down with molasses water. 

When the lower part of the flask is rammed full, a second 
section is placed on the first and as there is but little space 
between the pattern and the edge of the flask, it is rammed 
full with facing sand. A joint is made at the top of this section 
and the operation repeated until four of these parts are ram- 
med up, when a parting is made. The remaining sections are 
then placed and rammed up as before until the last section is 
reached. In this section a shrink head is formed by cutting 
the sand back to the line H, Fig. 71 . The pattern is drawn and 
the mold finished, and, if of large size, is blacked before being 
placed in the oven to bake. 

In making cylinders up to sixteen inches diameter not more 
than two sections of the flask are rammed up together, and in 



no FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

case of the smaller sizes, but one, before partings are made as 
they are finished, blacked and the cores set more easily. 

The core box for making the cores used in this mold is 
shown in Fig. 72. The core projects on one side as shown at A 
in order to cut a slot in the casting. The hub and arms of the 
cylinder are at the bottom of the core box. Three gate-sticks 
are set as shown between the arms in order to provide vents. 
These must be accurately placed as, when the cores are set in 
the mold, one above the other, these vents must form one 
continuous channel from top to bottom of the built-up core. 
Rods are set down through the core to strengthen it and three 
staples are inserted between the arms, for use in handling the 
core when it is placed. The first core to be set in the mold is 
made by ramming the box full of core sand and striking it ofif 
level with the top. A plate is clamped on top, the core box is 
rolled over, the clamps removed, and the box rapped. What is 
now the top of the core box is pinned to the sides. The pins 
are removed and the top lifted off. The sides of the box are 
split at B, being held together with clamps C. These are 
knocked off and the sides removed. The gate-sticks forming 
the vents are drawn and the core is left on the plate to be 
.finished, blacked, and dried in the oven. In making the sec- 
tions of the core above the first one, the upper part of the hub is 
formed in the bottom of the core as it sets in the mold, by using 
section E, Fig. 73, in the top of the core box before it is rolled 
over on the plate. The hub formed is filled with black sand 
which is removed after the core is baked and the space left by 
it is blacked. 

The mold having been baked, the first section of the 
flask is placed in the pouring pit, resting on the binder as 
shown in Fig. 71, and is carefully leveled. The first section of 
core is set in this drag and is also leveled. This core is 
set in core-print at the bottom of Fig. 70, and is accurately 
centered. Around the vent holes and also around the vent in 
the center core, is placed a putty worm. The second section is 
placed on top of the first and the putty being soft is flattened 
out between the two cores and forms a dam which will prevent 



DRY-SAND MOLDS 



III 




Figs. 70-74. — Molding a Printing-press Cylinder. 



112 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

iron working into the vents in the cores. Each succeeding core 
is set in this manner, being leveled as set. The cores being in 
place, the various sections of the mold are set around the core. 
On top of the cores is placed a clay worm and over this the 
plate J. Two blocks of wood are set on the edges of the flask, 
across which the top binder K is laid. This binder and that at 
the lower edge of the mold are held together by the stirrup 
R. Wedges driven between the upper binder and the plate 
/ hold down the center cores. The runner N is set on top of 
the mold, this being of dry sand and set as shown. Gates in 
the bottom of this runner allow iron to flow into the mold all 
around its circumference. The mold itself is left open at the 
top, rendering it easy to observe when the mold is filled and to 
stop pouring at the proper time. This style of runner box is 
used for many different types of castings. It is one of the best 
methods of getting clean iron into the mold, as dirt in the iron 
tends always to rise to the surface. The iron from the runner 
flows from the bottom and therefore is the cleanest iron, the 
dirt remaining on the surface and adhering to the sides of the 
runner. 

The hubs encased in the cores are the last parts of the cast- 
ing to cool. For this reason the casting, if it is to cool evenly, 
must be left in the mold for a considerable period of time and 
when removed must be kept out of drafts until the casting has 
attained the temperature of the atmosphere, otherwise cracks 
may be found in various portions, particularly in the edges 
where the casting was stopped off by the projections on the 
core. 

Fig- 75 shows a type cylinder with the cores set in sec- 
tions as in the first cylinder. The hubs, however, are not tied 
together as in the first case owing to some peculiarity of manu- 
facture. The pattern used is solid and, being of small diameter, 
the sections of the flask are rammed up one at a time, and 
parted at A,B, C, D and E for convenience in finishing, black- 
ing, and setting the cores F. In closing the cores over the flask, 
the center cores are first set as before and sections of the mold 
closed around them. After the first section is in place, the 



DRY-SAND MOLDS 



113 



remaining sections are closed two at a time, a certain amount of 
clearance being left between the cores in the sides of the mold 
and the center core. After the cores have been set and the 
flask completely closed, a gage is run down among the cores 




FtG. 76 CASTING 

WHEN CORE PRINTS 

ARE REMOVED 



FIG. 77 ROLL MOLD WITH CORE 



FIG. 78 ROLL FLASK . 



TYPE CYLINDER MOLD FlG. 75 



Figs. 75-80. — Casting Type Cylinders and Rolls. 



in the mold to insure that they are correctly placed. The mold 
is poured with the same kind of a runner as before and the 
same rules should be observed in pouring. 

Another style of roll largely used is shown in Fig. 76, while 



114 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

adjoining it, Fig. 77, is the section of the mold for it with the 
core in place. The smaller sizes of these rolls are usually 
molded on their side in an iron flask, but when poured, the 
mold is set on end. Occasionally such molds are molded in 
green sands, but cleaner and sounder castings are obtained by 
the use of dry-sand molds in this work. The core shown is a 
loam core (see Chapter XI) and is fastened in the mold at 
the bottom by a rod passed through a hole in the gas-pipe 
forming the arbor on which the core is built, the rod being 
secured in the flask. The core thus has a chance to expand 
upward when heated by contact with the molten iron. After 
closing the mold, it is set upright and plumbed to insure its 
being truly vertical. The various details of runner, gates, etc., 
are shown in the illustration. 

While many printing-press rolls are poured in the manner 
described above, that is, from the top, many rolls for different 
purposes are poured at the bottom. In this case, the flask 
Fig. 78 is used. This flask has a projection on the front in 
which a gate can be made, through which iron may be poured 
to enter the mold at the bottom. When the flask is plumbed, 
the iron, entering the mold at the bottom, rises around the core 
evenly, thus setting up no uneven strain on any side of the 
core. For molding solid rolls, square flasks are sometimes used, 
the gates being set in the corners of the flask and staggered 
somewhat in the various sections to prevent the iron having a 
straight drop the entire length of the mold. A sprue is cut 
from the gate in one flask section to that in the next to afford 
a continuous passageway for the iron. It is best to set a gate 
in the opposite corner to that down which the iron is poured 
and to allow this second gate to fill, since, when the roll is 
cooling, the side on which the gate is, through which the iron 
was poured, keeps that side of the roll the hottest and thereby 
often warps the roll in cooling, if but one gate has been used. 
By placing gates in opposite corners, both sides of the roll are 
kept equally hot and warping is avoided. 

Many foundries use whirl gates in pouring solid rolls (see 
page 24) to force the dirt to the center of the casting, whence 



DRY-SAND MOLDS II5 

it will rise in a shrinkhead or riser. In making short roils it 
is often more economical to make the mold in a core rather 
than in sand and to pour it on end. Thus a frame is made and 
the roll pattern molded in the frame to form a drag, and a 
second frame is used to form a cope. A pouring gate is 
arranged down the side and into the bottom of the mold to- 
gether with a riser for churning. The second or cope frame is 
gaggered and rodded. The pattern is lifted with the top 
frame when it is removed, thus helping to hold the sand in 
place. If a core is to be used through the center, it is placed 
in the lower half and the top half closed on it. If the riser for 
churning is arranged to be one-half in each core forming the 
mold, it will be easy to see when the cores are properly matched. 
Planks or plates are clamped on each side of the core to hold 
the two halves together and it is placed in a hole dug in the 
floor and sand rammed around it. 

Long rolls of small diameter with a shaft in them, are best 
poured in an inclined position, the iron entering at the bottom 
and covering the lower end of the shaft first. If bubbling or 
boiling occurs as the iron flows over the shaft, the bubble will 
follow along the shaft and enter a riser placed at its high corner, 
thereby insuring sound metal in the main casting. Such a 
shaft which is to be cast into a casting should be tinned in 
order to flux the iron on it. Instead of placing the mold in an 
inclined position for long rolls, some foundrymen favor the 
use of a large number of gates on the mold in order to fill it 
quickly with hot iron, claiming thereby to obtain a sounder 
casting with the core held more easily in the center, the iron 
covering it quickly and burning it more nearly alike at all 
points and exerting an even pressure under the core. Light 
rolls for leather and cotton machinery are often poured in 
this manner and good results obtained. 



CHAPTER XI 

LOAM MOLDING 

Many of the larger and heavier castings are made in what 
are known as loam molds, as this class of mold is usually swept 
up and requires less pattern work than any other class of mold. 
A loam mold consists essentially of a brick backing built up 
on cast-iron plates, the surface of the bricks being covered 
with loam which is swept to the proper size and shape to form 
the finished mold. The loam is baked on the bricks after the 
mold has been finished. Castings weighing many tons are 
poured in this type of mold and include engine cylinders, 
fly-wheels, and similar heavy castings. 

In making a loam mold, certain equipment is necessary 
and, in order that the student may understand the making of 
this equipment, we will assume that for the mold which we are 
about to consider there is none of it immediately available and 
that it is necessary to make it in the foundry before actual 
molding is begun. We will discuss the making of the mold 
shown in Figs. 82 to 85, which is for a large cylinder. Before 
commencing operations, the entire construction of the mold 
must be planned in advance, and provision made for tearing 
away and breaking down certain portions of the mold as soon 
as poured in order to allow the casting to shrink while cooling. 
Green-sand molds will crush under the shrinkage of a casting, 
but a loam mold, being stiffened with brickwork and iron 
plates, will not yield and the casting will thereby be rup- 
tured in shrinking unless the mold is broken down sufficiently 
to permit shrinkage. 

The cylindrical casting which we are to consider is seven 
feet diameter and six feet long. It is provided with flanges 
extending five inches from the walls of the cylinder, each flange 
two and three-quarters inches thick. The walls of the cylin- 

1.16 



LOAM MOLDING 117 

der are two and one-quarter inches thick. As there is no equip- 
ment at hand for the making of this mold in loam, it is neces- 
sary for the molder to provide himself with a spindle seat, 
bricks, sweeps, sweep fingers, carrying plates, etc. A sketch 
has been provided showing the size and shape of the casting. 

A rough pattern of the spindle seat, Fig. 90, is made and a 
casting taken therefrom. The spindle, to which the sweeps are 
to be fastened, is formed of a piece of cold-rolled shafting, two 
and three-eighths inches diameter, one end of which is tapered 
for a length of one foot down to one and three-eighths inches 
diameter. A number of collars, fitted with set screws, are 
made to fit snugly on the spindle. As the spindle is a tall one, 
it is advisable to make provision for supporting it at the top by 
braces to the wall as shown in Fig. 83. The spindle may be 
made either to revolve in the seat or to be fixed. In the latter 
case, the sweeps are held at the proper height on the spindle 
by collars set-screwed to the shaft below them. The brace is 
so constructed that it may be swung up out of the way when 
not in use, or to permit the lowering over the spindle of a 
collar. The bracing is so arranged that the spindle cannot 
move in any direction. 

The brace for the top of the spindle is lowered into position 
and stayed in place with ropes and blocking. The spindle 
seat is molded in the floor directly under the center of the 
collar on the brace, its position being determined by a plumb 
line, a fire brick being placed under the center of the hub. 

A finger pattern for the sweep finger B has been made and 
castings from it finished and bored out to the size of the 
spindle. One of these fingers is placed on the spindle, which is 
then set in the spindle-seat mold with the end resting on the 
fire brick. The tapered end of the spindle having previously 
been blackened, slack iron is poured into the mold, which is 
poured open. After the seat casting has set, it is covered with 
sand and left until the next morning, when a plank is bolted 
to the sweep finger and the spindle turned in the seat. Later, 
when the seat has cooled, the spindle is removed and the seat 
is properly set in the sand for beginning molding operations. 



ii8 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



Before the mold proper can be constructed, the plates on 
which the mold is to be built, and which in some cases are to 
form portions of the mold, must be cast. The first plate to be 
made is the bottom or drag plate. A sand heap is leveled 
under one of the cranes and a bed made on it. A block of 




CSJ 



Fig. 8i. — Molding the Drag Plate and Carrying Plate. 



wood is bedded at the center and with a pair of trammels two 
circles A and B, Fig. 8i, representing respectively the outside 
and inside diameter of the plate, are traced on the face of the 
bed. A piece of plank C, of somewhat greater thickness than 
the plate, has one edge formed to a section of the outer circle, 



LOAM MOLDING II9 

and a similar plank E is cut to form a section of the inner 
circle. These two pieces of plank are successively moved 
around the circumference of the circle traced in the sand, and 
sand is rammed up against them and struck off flush with the 
top of the plank. We thus have formed in the sand bed a 
depression of the same size and shape as the desired drag plate, 
but of somewhat greater depth. As the plate must be handled 
by the crane it is necessary to cast on it four lugs D, which 
quarter the circle. These lugs are formed by placing a block 
of wood of the desired size and shape against the segment C 
at the proper points on the circle and ramming sand around it. 
A flow-off gate is cut in the sand forming the exterior circle 
around the mold at the desired height above the bottom of the 
mold to form the proper thickness of plate, in this case two 
and one-half inches. When the mold is poured, any excess 
iron will run off through this gate and maintain the thickness 
of the plate at the desired point. Dry-sand cores are placed 
to form holes in each of the four lugs D and weighted down. 
A pouring basin / is formed and a screen built to protect the 
molders from the heat when pouring the mold. The heat in 
this case will be intense as there will be a considerable number 
of square feet of iron radiating heat at 2,300 deg. F. The 
screen is formed by rods / driven in the sand, against which 
are placed bottom-boards or iron plates held in place by other 
rods driven in front of them. It is advisable to construct a 
second pouring basin on the opposite side of the mold from 
the first and pour into it a small ladle of iron at the same time 
that the larger basin is poured. 

A cope plate is also to be made, which is similar in shape and 
size to the bottom plate, with the exception that pouring gates 
must be provided through which the cylinder mold is poured. 
The cope-plate mold is made in the same manner as was the 
bottom plate, but, after the sand has been built up around the 
outside and inside circles, a third circle is struck in the sand to 
locate the pouring gates. On this circle cores C, Fig. 81, of one 
inch greater diameter than the pouring gates are set. Some 
foundrymen prefer instead of cores to use pieces of coke as H, 



120 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

claiming it makes a rough hole which will hold the loam around 
the pouring gates better than the core. As the under side of 
the cope plate must be faced with loam, teeth must be cast on 
this face to hold the loam when it is swept on. These teeth 
are formed by the print M, consisting of a block of wood 
with the teeth formed on it, the face of the mold being printed 
all over with this block, as shown at K. The finished cope ring 
is shown in Fig. 87. 

The cheek ring and carrying plates, Figs. 88 and 89, are 
molded and cast in the same manner as the cope plate, teeth 
being made in the under side to hold the loam. The carrying 
plates, simply being required to support the overhang of the 
flange of the cylinder, are made only five-eighths inch thick. 
After molding the carrying plates, a number of small cores 
are set across the plates so as to form a weak spot at either 
side enabling the plate to be easily broken at the proper time. 
The uses of these various plates will be explained as they are 
reached in the construction of the mold. The brick used for 
backing the mold are common red brick, the softer brick being 
preferred as they are more porous and will hold the loam 
better than the harder brick. 

The loam mixture to be used consists of New Jersey fire 
sand, a sand of light yellowish color, of coarse texture nearly 
approaching gravel, and having a fairly high fusing point, a 
coarse molding sand, white pine sawdust and for bond dried 
and ground Jersey fire clay of high plasticity. These are mixed 
in the proportions: four parts fire sand, one part molding sand, 
one part fire clay, and one part sawdust wet with water. The 
sawdust is used to make a porous open mixture which will 
permit the easy escape of gases when the mold is poured. This 
loam is thoroughly mixed with a hoe and wet until it is of the 
proper consistency for easy handling in the mold. 

The various plates having been made, the spindle seat is 
set in the floor and the spindle plumbed in it. The spindle is 
then removed and the bottom plate lowered over the seat, 
being permitted to rest on timbers as shown in Fig. 82. The 
spindle is then replaced and a finger A bolted to it and the plate 



LOAM MOLDING 121 

leveled by means of the sweep, which has been previously 
leveled by means of a spirit-level. The molder next places a 
brick on the plate and raises the sweep C to a sufficient height 
to permit the brick to be laid in mortar on the bottom plate 
and to provide room for the loam which is to be swept on the 
brick. The mortar used is formed of sand and clay wet to the 
consistency of mortar. Bricks are now laid on the bottom 
plate to form the seating as shown in Fig. 82, being kept five- 
eighths of an inch below the edge of the sweep. After the seat- 
ing has been built the bricks are covered with the loam mixture 
and trued ofT with the sweep. The sweep is cleaned off and 
the loam allowed to set, after which it is given a coating of slip 
consisting of four parts of molding sand and one part of fire 
sand wet with molasses water. The slip closes the pores of 
the coarse sand and gives a smooth surface to the mold. It is 
allowed to dry after which it is blackened. The seating is 
made with a slight slant at D to provide clearance at the part- 
ing of the cheek. The seating is sometimes dried by bolting an 
arm to the spindle and hanging from it a fire basket which is 
swung around over the seating, or at other times by means of 
an oil burner when compressed air is available. If there is 
plenty of time, the seating may be allowed to air-dry until 
hard enough to carry its load, the molder meantime sweeping 
loam on the carrying plates. In drying the seating by means 
of heat, it should be remembered that molding sand and mo- 
lasses water mixtures will burn very quickly and care must be 
exercised. 

After the seating is dry, it is covered with oiled newspapers 
in lieu of parting sand in a green-sand mold, the spindle having 
first been removed. Instead of the newspapers powdered 
charcoal mixed with water is sometimes used. The faces D 
and E of the seating are covered with loam, after which the 
cheek plate F, Fig. 83, is lowered, pricker side down, on the 
seating and loam is tucked between the seating and the plate 
on the line D, Fig. 82, and the plate leveled. The spindle is 
then replaced and a second finger A, Fig. 83, is attached to 
it, sweep C then being bolted to fingers A and B. Attached to 



122 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



sweep C are a number of loose fingers which are removed as 
the work progresses. This sweep as a whole forms the inside 
of the cheek, which in turn forms the outside of the casting. 




FIG.B2. SWEEPING THE SEATINO. 



Figs. 82-90. — Molding a Cylinder in Loam. 

It is carefully plumbed in order to insure the casting bein^- of 
the same diameter at the top and bottom. 

Referring now to Fig. 83, at the lower end of the sweep is 
finger D to form the circle for the outside of the lower flange. 
Bricks E are bedded in the mud on cheek ring F, being set low 



LOAM MOLDING 123 

enough to permit loam to be laid between their upper surface 
and the finger D, and by swinging the sweep around the circle 
the outside circumference of the flange is formed. The bricks 
are loamed and built up to the level of the top of the flange. 
The loam is then covered with slip and finished to receive the 
carrying plate, after which it is allowed to dry and become 
set, since it must bear the weight of the brickwork on the 
carrying plate and if soft when the brickwork is built the 
carrying plate will settle and thereby decrease the thickness 
of the flange. 

One of the carrying plates having previously been covered 
with loam on the pricker side, is baked in the core oven. After 
the loam is hard, this plate is lowered on top of the brickwork 
of the mold already built and centered from the spindle. Its 
position is shown at G, Fig. 83. The cheek is next bricked up, 
as shown at H, the various courses being tied together and set 
back far enough from the sweep to permit loam to be swept 
on later. The brick work is carried to a point where it is 
necessary to set the carrying plate /, which is to carry the 
portion of the mold which overhangs the vertical brickwork H. 
This plate is set in loam mud, pricker side up, and the brick- 
work is continued upward on it to the thickness of the top 
flange. Loam is then swept on top of the brick on the carrying 
plate and on the brick around the flange. Some molders will, 
at this point, loam the entire face of the brickwork already 
built, but usually only the part forming the flange is done at 
this time. The loam is allowed to set, after which the finger 
K is removed and the carrying plate L which is to form the 
top of the upper flange is placed, having previously been 
loamed as was plate G. The brickwork is then continued a 
short distance above this plate to form a shrinkhead, being 
kept back a short distance in order to give a shrinkhead of 
greater thickness than the casting. The interior face of the 
brickwork is now cleaned off and the surface loamed, the brick 
being dampened if necessary. Loaming is performed by the 
molder throwing loam against the surface by the handful and 
truing it off with the sweep. It is evident that the loam must 



124 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

be worked to a proper consistency, for if too stifif it will not 
adhere to the brick and if too soft it will sag. After truing, the 
loam surface is coated with slip, usually by brushing it on with 
a molder's soft brush, after which the slip is floated off with the 
sweep. Sweep and spindle are now removed and the loam 
and slip allowed to set, after which blacking is applied to the 
entire surface with a swab, and slicked off with a trowel, being 
finally finished with a camel's-hair brush and molasses water. 

By means of the cross, shown in Fig. 86, which is attached 
to the crane, the cheek is lifted off, parting from the seating at 
AI and N. Slings from the four extremities of the cross are 
passed under the four lugs on the cheek plate, the slings being 
kept as close to the outside as possible. The cheek is then low- 
ered on the carriage of the core oven, and, as the loam on the 
under side of the cheek ring is not dry, the ring is blocked up 
under the lugs. The cheek is then placed in the core oven and 
baked hard. 

The spindle is now replaced and the center built. When 
constructing the center it should be borne in mind that the 
casting will shrink about one-eighth inch per foot, or in the 
present case, where the circumference of the casting is about 
twenty-two feet, two and three-quarter inches. Provision 
must therefore be made for the brickwork to crush as this 
shrinkage takes place, otherwise the casting will be ruptured. 
There is therefore provided a number of loam bricks, that is 
bricks formed of the loam mixture used in the mold, and a 
vertical row of these is built into the center. The fingers A 
and B, Fig. 84, being replaced on the spindle, the sweep C is 
bolted to them and plumbed, the inner edge being set the re- 
quired distance from the center to give the desired inside 
diameter of the casting. 

The location of the loam bricks is shown at D in Fig. 84. 
Oftentimes when strength is desired in the cheek a double 
thickness of brick is used, in which case but a single thickness 
may be used in the center. The cheek is required to resist an 
outward bursting pressure in pouring and a stronger construc- 
tion than for the center is necessary for it. Both cheek and 



LOAM MOLDING 125 

center must be built so that they will be rigid while the mold 
is being poured, but the center must be so constructed that it 
will give when the casting has set and is contracting. 

After bricking up, the center is loamed and finished as was 
the cheek. It is then dried either in the core oven or by means 
of a fire basket or an oil flame. The covering or cope plate is 
then prepared by sweeping loam on the pricker side, after which 
a circle is described in the loam to mark the location of the 
pouring gates, which were filled with loam when the plate was 
prepared. While the mold is drying, the curbing, consisting of 
sheets of boiler plate formed in a circle, is prepared. These 
circles are made in halves and for the mold under consideration 
three are required. If the mold is to be poured in a pit, how- 
ever, no curbing is necessary. The diameter of the curbing is 
such that it will completely encircle the mold outside of the 
lugs on the various plates. 

The center being dried, it is placed level on a sand bed 
either on the floor or in a pit as desired and the cheek ring 
lowered over it to its place on the seating. Before removing 
the cheek from the seating for drying, notches were cut in 
both the cheek ring and bottom plate to locate them with 
reference to each other, and in replacing the cheek these 
notches are matched so that in the assembled mold the various 
parts have the same relation to each other that they had when 
first built. The covering plate is then set, being located in its 
proper position by measurement and by looking through the 
pouring gates. Sometimes a seating is swept in the cheek to 
locate the cover plate, but in a mold of the kind under con- 
sideration this is usually unnecessary. The cross is now set on 
the cover plate as shown in Fig. 86 resting on blocking, on 
either side of the pouring gates as shown in Fig. 85. A curb 
of boiler iron is set against the inner set of blocks, after which 
slings are passed over the ends of the cross and under the lugs 
on the bottom plate and wedged up, thus tying the mold to- 
gether. Wads of cotton waste are inserted in the gate holes 
to prevent any dirt from falling into the mold and the first 
section of curbing / is set. Sand is rammed between this curb- 



126 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

ing and the brickwork, a compressed-air rammer being used, 
if it is available. The ramming should be done uniformly, 
preferably by a number of men all around the mold, so that 
the brickwork will not be strained unevenly. After the sand 
has been rammed a short distance above the first carrying 
plate, straw is laid against the brickwork and sand rammed 
around it, the straw forming a vent. The second curb is ram- 
med as was the first, but when the third and upper curb is 
placed considerable care must be exercised in ramming sand 
under the overhang and up to the top of the covering plate. 
The wads of waste are removed from the pouring gates and 
gate-sticks are inserted. The overhang is vented with a vent- 
wire and the vents adjoining the curb are brought, by means of 
cinders or straw, to a point where a gate-stick may be rammed 
in the sand to form a vent from the cinders or straw, after 
which sand is rammed to the top of the curbing and the runner 
built as shown in Fig. 86. A riser may be formed through one 
of the gate holes as shown, but usually castings of this charac- 
ter are poured without a riser, as it is easy to tell when the 
mold is full by the action of the iron in the runner. 

The casting being poured, the iron in the runner is broken 
as soon as it has set and steps are immediately taken to 
provide for the shrinkage of the casting. The two top sections 
of curbing are unbolted and taken apart. At the same time 
another workman with a long chisel is cutting through the 
strips of loam brick built into the center so that the latter 
may crush as the casting contracts. As soon as the curbing is 
removed, the wedges holding down the cross are knocked out 
and the slings removed from it. The sand is cleared from 
under the overhanging plate forming the upper flange of the 
casting, and with chisel-pointed bars the bricks are pried out 
from under this plate at the points where the rows of small 
cores were set when it was made in order to provide a weak 
spot where the plate could be easily broken. The plate is 
broken with a sledge and the two halves pulled out from the 
mold or a course of brick is removed from under the plate, 
which enables the casting to contract in a vertical direction 



LOAM MOLDING 127 

without danger of breaking off the upper flange. These same 
plates may be used in a second similar mold if desired, by 
bolting them together across the break, or by sweeping them 
up separately in the mold. 

In loam molds of this character, plates of different shapes 
are cast and loamed and then used to carry overhanging parts 
where the flanges or other overhang is too wide to be carried 
by bricks. Cores also are often used for the same purpose, 
especially where it is necessary to cut the mold away to permit 
shrinkage of the casting. Loam work is sometimes considered 
expensive, but in many cases castings can be made in loam 
much more cheaply than in green or dry sand when the cost 
of pattern work, flasks, and necessary rigging is considered. 
Where a great many castings are made in loam the work is 
necessarily done much more cheaply than in foundries where 
loam work is of comparatively infrequent occurrence. 

In molding certain classes of castings in loam a skeleton is 
often furnished with some solid parts attached to it, patterns 
being furnished for these parts. A portion of the mold may be 
swept and a portion bricked up against solid parts of the pat- 
tern. Thus the barrel of a steam cylinder may be swept and 
the steam and exhaust chests formed by solid patterns, the 
brickwork being carried against these parts. In this case the 
steam and exhaust chests will be tied together at the top and 
bottom by the flanges of the cylinder and by the wrist-plate 
stand and any parts formed on the barrel of the cylinder. The 
seating is swept and the parts that are to form the lower end 
of the cylinder are bricked and loamed, after which the pat- 
tern parts are set and the cheek plate arranged on the seating 
as in the mold previously described. The cheek is bricked up 
and the pattern being well greased or oiled, the rounding por- 
tion of the cylinder is built up to it, after which loam is placed 
against the pattern. Bricks are then dipped in water, rubbed 
in the loam, and laid against the loam on the pattern, and loam 
mud grouted in between the various bricks. The sides of the 
cylinder are continued upward and, to strengthen the brick- 
work, iron plates are built in at intervals. The outside ends 



128 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

are built last, as they have to be removed to allow the setting 
of the chest cores. After the cheek is built it is hoisted ofT and 
the center built as in the first mold considered. Instead of 
patterns, skeletons, which are guides on which sweeps are used 
to form the faces desired, may be bricked in. 

In casting large fly-wheels for engines, if there are many to 
be made, the wheel may be hoisted out of the mold, leaving a 
bricked-up rim in good shape for a second pouring, only the 
loam face requiring repairs. If the loam is so injured that it 
is not possible to repair it, it is carefully removed, the face of 
the brick cleaned with a wire brush and dampened, and the 
proper thickness of loam swept on. Thus the time of bricking 
up is saved. While it was formerly customary to make the 
face of large pulleys in loam, they are now often made in green 
sand or with cores. 

Figs. 91-99 show the method of constructing the centers 
of loam molds for heavy balance wheels and heavy gears. The 
bottom plate is shown in Fig. 91, the cope plate being similar, 
with the exception that cored holes are provided for risers. 
The cover plate for the hub and arm core box are shown in 
Figs. 92 and 93 respectively. Fig. 94 shows grids which are 
used to strengthen the arm core, while Fig. 95 illustrates a core 
box for forming the gear teeth. 

The method of sweeping the seating is illustrated in Fig. 
96. If the lower part of the hub is to be formed by means of 
a core, this is placed at the center and bedded down with a 
spindle rising through the core-print. If it is to be swept up in 
loam this operation is performed when the seating is swept. 
After the seating has set, the gage. Fig. 97, is used to set the 
sweep A, Fig. 98, by which the center is formed. The brick- 
work is swept to the proper height and the cores A and B, Fig. 
100, which form the arms are placed. They are kept back a 
sufficient distance to allow the sweep to pass them. The 
corners are usually rubbed off to permit the loam to adhere 
later. The brickwork. Fig. 99 7^, is built in between the arm 
cores, being set so that a coating of loam can be swept over 
the face. As the tops of the cores are reached, they are bricked 



LOAM MOLDING 



129 



over, the bricks being laid in a mixture of loam mud with quite 
open joints. When learning the bricks they should not be dry 
and better results will be obtained if the bricks are rubbed 
with loam before they are laid. After loaming, a coating of. 
slip is brushed on, after which the face of the mold is blackened 




flS.9^. BOTTOM AND TOP PLATE, 
' OF COPE AND DRAG. 



Fjg.99. general view OF MOLD. TOQ 



Figs. 91-100. — Molding a Fly-wheel in Loam. 



and the whole center thoroughly dried. While drying the 
center, the covering plates should be loamed and the cores for 
forming the teeth made. 

Before proceeding further, let us examine the arm cores, 
which are shown at B in Fig. 100. These are made with 
grids to stiffen them, and in many cases the grids are provided 
9 



130 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

with ears which project beyond the edge of the core. When 
the two halves of the core are dry they are bolted together by 
means of these ears, thus forming a pipe through which the 
metal flows from the hub, where it is poured, to the rim. 

The center being dried is replaced as shown in Fig. 98, 
the portion B of the sweep being removed and replaced with 
the piece D. The inner edges of the tooth cores are set against 
this piece as it is revolved around the spindle. As it is ex- 
tremely important that the center be replaced after drying 
in the exact position in which it was made, guides must be 
provided to insure its being returned to this position. It is bet- 
ter to dry the center in place, even if it is inconvenient, rather 
than to remove it and dry it in the oven. The tooth cores 
being in place, a wall of brickwork is built up back of them and 
dried out sufficiently hard to support the covering plate, which 
is placed as shown in Figs. 99 and 100, and is held in place by 
stirrups or slings / wedged in place. The center core is set in 
the core-print, the under side being covered with paste to 
prevent iron working under it. The hub plate covering the 
center of the mold is arranged with holes for pouring gates 
and risers and, after loaming, is set. This is provided with a 
beveled edge which guides it to place in a beveled seating swept 
in the mold. It is covered with paste where it bears on the 
center core. After bolting this plate in place as shown, gate- 
sticks are placed, the curbing set, and sand rammed between it 
and the mold. The runner is then made as shown at L and 
iron balls, each provided with a handle, are placed over each 
gate. In pouring the runner is filled with iron, after which 
these balls are lifted and the iron permitted to flow into the 
mold from the bottom of the pool in the runner. As dirt will 
rise to the surface of the iron, this practice insures that only 
clean iron will enter the mold. 

After the mold has been poured and the iron set, usually 
the next day, the center covering plate should be removed and 
the core dug out. The brickwork should then be removed from 
between the arm cores, although these will crush sufficiently to 
prevent breaking of the arms as the casting shrinks in cooling. 



LOAM MOLDING I3I 

When building brickwork for loam molds in which a large 
amount of metal is to be poured, the brickwork is built solidly 
around the mold with cinders laid in between the bricks to 
provide vents. It is necessary to have a solid structure to 
resist the pressure of the metal and this would be impossible 
were the bricks to be laid with rather open joints as is done in 
smaller molds. It is also necessary, however, that the mold be 
thoroughly vented and this is accomplished by the cinders 
which are laid in between two layers of loam mortar between 
each course of brick. In building the cheek of a loam mold it is 
advisable to lay whole brick on the outside and small pieces on 
the inside against the loam, thus providing a large number of 
joints close to the mold to act as vents. Conversely, in build- 
ing the center the small pieces of brick should be laid on the 
outside and the whole brick on the inside of the center. 

Loam molds are especially susceptible to buckles and scabs. 
A scab is formed by a portion of the loam scaling from the 
face of the mold, leaving a cavity which forms a rough irregular 
projection on the casting. The loam which scales off fre- 
quently lodges against some other portion of the mold and 
thus forms a cavity in the casting. The cause of this scaling 
is usually the failure to properly clean the face of the brick 
before loam is applied. It is also frequently caused by the 
use of brick which have been used for a considerable period 
and have become burned hard. The loam adheres with 
difficulty to the glazed surface thus formed. Another cause 
of scaling, especially over flanges, is the failure of the molder to 
properly dry out the deep bed of loam, steam thus being gen- 
erated when the casting is poured which forces the loam from 
the face of the mold in escaping. A buckle is formed by steam 
being generated as above, but not in sufficient quantity to 
rupture the loam. It may, however, expand and force the 
loam outward a short distance from the surface of the mold 
and thus make a depression in the casting. 



132 foundry practice 

Loam Mixtures 

It is practically impossible to lay down any fixed rules for 
the mixing of loam, as requirements for different classes of 
work vary greatly, as do the qualities of the material obtain- 
able in different parts of the country. However, the following 
mixtures used by the writer have given satisfaction: — 

1. One part coarse Jersey molding sand 
Two parts coarse Jersey fire sand 

One part white pine sawdust mixed with seven parts of the above 
mixture. Mix with a thick clay wash formed of clay of high plas- 
ticity. 

2. Four parts fire sand 

One part Jersey molding sand 
One part ground clay 
One part white pine sawdust 

Wet with water, mix well, and allow to stand for two days, after which 
it should be again mixed before using. 

3. Mixture for a ten-ton cylinder mold. 
One part Jersey molding sand 
Four parts Jersey fire sand 

One part of rye meal to twenty parts of the sand mixture wet with sour 
beer. 

4. Mixture for a three-ton cylinder mold. 
One part Millville (New Jersey) gravel 
One part coarse molding sand 

Mix with water. 

5. Mixture for slip. 

Four parts coarse molding sand 

One part fire sand 

Wet with molasses water and pass through a fine riddle. 

Sweeping Loam Cores 

The illustration Fig. loi shows how a loam core may be 
swept up on a gas-pipe arbor, being built around a hay rope 
center. This core is one that vents easily and the gas escapes 
freely from one end to the other. A horse A B with semi- 
circular notches in the upper surface is used as shown. A gas- 
pipe arbor is placed in corresponding notches at either end of 



LOAM MOLDING 



133 



the horse, a crank being set-screwed to one end of the arbor. 
Numerous holes are bored at intervals in the gas-pipe to allow 
the escape of gases from the core to the interior of the pipe. 
Hay rope which may be either twisted by the molder or pur- 
chased from a foundry supply house is wound on the arbor, 
a thin cast-iron plate F being set at the middle point of the 
arbor to prevent the hay rope being forced up toward the end 
of the core by the pressure of the iron 
when the mold is poured. The hay 
rope is wound firmly on the arbor, but 
without sufficient strain to break it, 
to approximately the shape of the 




Fig. ioi. — Sweeping a Loam Core. 



finished core E. After the rope has been wound on, coarse, 
clayey loam is rubbed well into the rope, a good way being to 
revolve the arbor and with a round piece of iron rub the loam 
into the rope. After this is done, loam should be applied 
thickly to the core and swept off to the proper size and shape 
by revolving the core against the sweep or strike G, which has 
a beveled edge and is used with the beveled side up. The core 
is then dried, after which it is replaced on the horse and once 
more revolved, this time a brick being rubbed lightly on its 
face in order to roughen it for the coat of slip which is swept 
on the surface. The core is then blackened and dried once 
more in the oven. The same mixtures of loam and slip are 
used in these loam cores as in loam molds described above. 



CHAPTER XII 

MOLDS FOR STEEL CASTINGS 

The subject of steel castings requires an entire book in 
itself, as it involves not only questions of molding but also 
those of steel melting and making, including open-hearth 
furnace and Bessemer converter practice. The author pro- 
poses in this book to treat only of the problems of making 
molds for steel castings and for further information regarding 
the entire subject the reader is referred to the excellent work, 
"Open Hearth Steel Castings," ^ by W. M. Carr, and also to 
the splendid papers, "Converter vs. Small Open Hearth,"^ 
by the same author. 

Steel is a more difficult metal to cast than iron as the 
shrinkage is greater, being about one-quarter inch per foot as 
compared to one-eighth inch per foot for cast-iron. It also has 
a shorter period of fluidity and expels a greater quantity of gas. 
Molds for steel castings are made in much the same manner as 
for iron castings of similar size and shape. Two principal 
dilTerences are noted, however, the first being the quality of 
the sand used, and the second the number and size of shrink- 
heads and risers. 

Molds for steel castings are made of a mixture of silica 
sand and silica clay, a highly refractory mixture. This is 
necessary as the temperature of the molten steel ranges from 
2,900 to 3,000 degrees Fahr. Molding sand of this character 
requires the addition of a certain amount of bonding material 
to cause it to hold together while the mold is being made, 
finished, and baked. Silica clay is used for this purpose, being 
added to the sand after drying and grinding. After mixing 
together the mass is wet with molasses water and tempered. 

^ The Penton Publishing Co., Cleveland. 
^ The Foundry, Nov. and Dec, 1907, Jan., 1908. 
134 



MOLDS FOR STEEL CASTINGS 135 

Mr. Carr, in "Open Hearth Steel Castings," gives the follow- 
ing typical analysis of a molding sand for steel castings: 

Silica 98 • 5 % 

Alumina i . 40% 

Iron oxide o . 06% 

Lime o . 20% 

Magnesia 0.16% 

Combined water o . 14% 

Alkalies . 25% 

The color is often white or slightly tinged with yellow. 
Color is not necessarily a guide to the quality of molding sand 
but is an indication. In the same work is given a typical 
composition of fire clay for use with the above sand: 

Silica 60 to 66 % 

Alumina 25 to 20 % 

Iron oxide o to 2 % 

Lime o to i % 

Magnesia o to i % 

Alkalies o to 2 % 

Combined water 7 . 50 to 10. 50% 

Mr. Carr also says, "The value of fire clay depends largely 
upon a low content of alkalies and a freedom from carbonates 
of lime. Oxide of iron has a strong fiuxing effect, but its 
presence below three per cent is harmless." In a certain steel 
works, the face of the molds for steel castings is made from the 
following mixture: 

Silica fire clay One part 

Crushed silica rock Five parts 

Silica sand Eleven parts 

Dampen with molasses water. 

This mixture is used for molding castings for heavy miter 
gears and other castings weighing up to 1,500 pounds. For 
smaller castings the same facing mixture is used, but is adul- 
terated with burned sand from the heat. 

The mold for a steel casting is rammed up and the pattern 
drawn in the usual manner. Flat surfaces, however, if of any 



136 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

considerable extent, are nailed after finishing by pushing 
shingle nails into the surface, leaving the heads flush with the 
face of the mold. The nails will prevent the face of the mold 
from being scabbed or cut by the fluid steel washing over it 
when the mold is filling. A coating of ground quartz, ground 
to the fineness of flour and mixed with molasses water, is 
applied to the face of the mold with a swab or a soft brush. 
The mold should then be placed in an oven and baked. After 
baking the molds are closed and clamped for pouring in the 
usual fashion, excepting that the steel, instead of being poured 
over the lip of the ladle as is the case with iron castings, is 
poured through a gate in the bottom of the ladle, thus prevent- 
ing the slag floating on top of the steel from entering the mold, 
and giving a cleaner and sounder casting. 

On account of the great shrinkage of steel in cooling from 
the liquid to the solid state, risers of liberal proportions must 
be provided over all the relatively massive portions of the 
casting, to act as reservoirs of steel to supply the casting with 
liquid metal as it shrinks in the mold. Should these not be of 
ample size and quantity, cavities will result in the finished 
casting. 

Molds for steel castings must also be made with provisions 
for crushing wherever pockets are formed in the casting in 
order to take care of the great shrinkage. The baked mold of 
silica sand is an extremely rigid structure, which will offer 
great resistance to crushing, and unless provision is made to 
relieve this rigidity as the casting cools, it will crack the cast- 
ing at the corners of the pockets, or if the casting is heavy 
enough to prevent cracking, undesirable shrinkage strains will 
be set up in it which will have a weakening effect. It is there- 
fore advisable to construct in the pocket of sand a pocket of 
cinders which may be formed by placing a box in the center 
of the sand pocket which is withdrawn after the mold has been 
rammed and the cavity filled with cinders, after which the 
mold is completed. Provision, of course, must be made for 
venting this pocket by one of the methods previously described. 
With this construction the sand will be crushed into the cinder 



MOLDS FOR STEEL CASTINGS 1 37 

pocket, as the casting cools, and thus prevent all strains on 
the latter. Another method of providing for shrinkage is to 
construct the mold so that certain portions of it will break 
down easily, as the casting cools and contracts. The more 
porous that either mold or core can be made for a steel casting 
and yet resist the action and pressure of the molten metal, the 
easier the gas can escape and also the easier will the mold 
crush and thus prevent shrinkage strains and afford sound 
castings. 

Another feature which must be borne in mind in making 
steel castings is that when one part of a casting is light, and 
another part adjoining it relatively heavy, the light part will 
draw metal from the heavier part as the former shrinks in 
cooling. Provision must be made by means of an ample 
shrinkhead to make up the deficiency of metal in the heavy 
part, caused by this action. 

In making cores for steel castings it should also be borne 
in mind that while the same binder may be used for a core 
for a steel casting as for an iron one, the sand used must have 
a much higher fusing point for steel than for iron. While the 
sand which will give satisfactory results to the iron casting 
may be strong enough to resist the heat of the steel so far as 
the shape of the casting is concerned, yet it may fuse and ad- 
here to the casting, making it difficult to remove from the in- 
terior of the cored surface. Cores for steel castings are rodded 
and vented the same as for iron castings. 



CHAPTER XIII 

DRY-SAND CORES 

Cavities in castings are formed by cores which are made 
either of green sand, as described in previous chapters on 
molding, or of dry sand, mixed with a binder and baked in an 
oven to render them hard and to fix their shape. Cores are 
usually made in a core box of wood or metal, the interior of 
which is hollowed to the shape of the exterior of the core. As 
considerable gas is generated when the cores are surrounded 
with hot metal in pouring the mold, they must be well vented 
to permit the escape of this gas. The cores are set in the 
mold, their location being determined by core-prints on the 
pattern. The iron entering the mold fills it and flowing around 
the cores is formed in the desired shape with cavities or hollow 
places the exact shape of the cores. Typical dry-sand cores 
are shown in Fig. 102, and Fig. 103 shows the core box for 
making core No. 12 together with the method of inserting rods 
in the core for strengthening it. We will later in this chapter 
discuss the various operations of core making, but we will now 
consider the various mixtures from which cores are made. 
In the various parts of the country, the core sands used vary 
as regards their chemical analyses and range from a very fine 
sand to a coarse gravel. For very small cores, coarse molding 
sand may be wet with molasses water, but core sand, as the 
term is generally understood, is a very different material from 
ordinary molding sand. In the first place, molding sand has 
bond and cohesion while core sand has none. For making small 
cores, a sharp, angular-grained sand is preferred, although 
a round-grained sand with high permeability and a large 
amount of porosity will give good results if a good binder is 
used to hold it together. The fine sand used in small cores will 
withstand the heat of the metal in small castings, but, under 
the influence of the greater amount of heat, continued for a 

138 



DRY-SAND CORES 139 

considerable period in larger castings, the fine sand will be 
burned and the core crumbled. Thus in core making, as in 
molding, coarser sand must be used as the casting increases 
in size, the coarser sands usually having greater resistance to 
fusion. Another reason for the use of coarser sands with large 
castings, is that a greater amount of gas is generated from the 
larger body of metal and more provision must be made for its 
escape. The larger sands, being more porous, furnish this 
provision. 

Inasmuch as good core sand has no bond whatever, and 
water added to it would not cause it, after baking, to retain a 
shape to which it might be molded, it is necessary to add to 
the sand some material to act as a binder. The binder not 
only will hold the core sand in shape during and after molding, 
so that it may be removed from the core box and placed on an 
iron plate for baking, but, under the influence of heat, will bind 
the separate grains of sand together in a firm, hard mass, which 
will preserve its form when set in the mold and resist the 
action of the hot metal. When the core is removed from the 
casting it should leave square corners, and hold in it the exact 
shape of the core when it was set in the mold. 

There are a variety of core binders on the market, and there 
are others in common use in foundries, the principal ingredi- 
ents being wheat flour, rye meal, powder^ rosin, and linseed 
oil. Dry and liquid core binders must be obtained from 
foundry supply houses or from manufacturers. For a core 
which is to be made and set in the mold a short time before 
pouring, a mixture of New England hill sand and flour can be 
used, mixed in the proportions of one part flour to sixteen parts 
sand. This should be tempered with water and riddled 
through a No. 8 sieve to remove lumps. These cores will 
absorb dampness somewhat rapidly and, if the cores are to 
remain in the mold for any length of time, a mixture of 
eighteen parts sand to one part flour wet with a mixture of 
one part molasses and sixteen parts water must be used. This 
will produce a harder, firmer core than before, which will resist 
the dampness of the mold for a longer period. 



140 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

If a core is desired which will resist moisture still longer, 
one part linseed oil to fifty parts sand, passed through a mixing 
machine, will give good results. By increasing the oil to one 
part in thirty-five still better results are obtained. Hill sand 
contains matter which is not found in lake or river sands and 
these last will absorb binder and produce cores with a smaller 
quantity than the hill sand. When tempering the sand for use, 
if it is made too damp the cores will swell and be ruined when 
baked in the oven. On the other hand, the core must be 
sufficiently wet with oil or molasses water to bake right. The 
degree of wetness necessary is impossible of description and 
can be learned only by experience. 

For small cores for brass or composition castings, a fine 
sharp sand is necessary. For the cores in Fig. 102, fine New 
England hill sand, or lake sand of Pennsylvania may be used. 
New Jersey sands usually have a slight amount of bond and 
the finer sands require a smaller amount of binder than usual. 

One part flour or rye meal added to sixteen parts of any of 
the above sands has been a common mixture for many years 
in all parts of the country. The amount of sand is increased 
or diminished as the cores increase or decrease in size. The 
sand is wet with a mixture of one part molasses and sixteen 
parts water, and after the cores are molded they are baked to 
a deep brown color. 

Since the introduction of dry and liquid core binders, 
eighteen parts sharp core sand and eighteen parts old or burned 
core sand, mixed with one part of binder and wet with mo- 
lasses water will give good results for large-size cores. For 
pump and small engine castings, a mixture of twenty-five parts 
sharp sand and twenty-five parts burned sand and one part 
linseed oil, thoroughly mixed in a mixing machine, will make 
excellent cores. For making a core for a large engine barrel, a 
mixture of four parts coarse New Jersey fire sand and two 
parts of coarse molding sand to which is added flour in the 
proportion of one part flour to twelve parts sand should be 
well riddled and wet with molasses water and thoroughly 
tempered. 



DRY-SAND CORES I4I 

A word regarding the qualities of the various sands will not 
be amiss at this point. The New England hill sand is large- 
grained quartzite. It resembles the lake sand largely, although 
hill sand contains a certain amount of alumina while lake sand 
is a clear wash sand. These sands may be largely used for 
small cores, but to withstand high heat for any length of time, 
they must be mixed with a refractory sand as ground silica 
rock or New Jersey fire sand. River sands are dredged from 
the bottoms of rivers. In the western part of New York is 
found a sand which resembles hill sand or river sand, but it is 
mixed with slate which fuses the sand and renders it hard to 
remove from castings. New Jersey sands difTer from all other 
in being more refractory. They may be obtained in many 
different grades of fineness and are especially suited to large 
cores in heavy bodies of metal. 

In regard to binders many experiments have been con- 
ducted to determine if a portion of the old core sand could be 
used, but it was found that flour and rye meal would not give 
satisfactory results when used as a binder in cores made partly 
of old sand. 

It was found that a core binder having a pitch or tar body 
Avould permit the use of a large percentage of old core sand and 
thus effect a saving. In order that a core binder should be 
considered good, it must not only bind the core sand in the 
green state but bind it still better when baked, so that the 
cores will hold their corners and be blackened if necessary, in 
order that the core will stand the intense heat and separate 
easily from the casting when it is cool, especially in the corners 
and in other portions hard to reach. 

For core-making machines, flour has proved an unsatis- 
factory binder as it gums the machine and the cores stick. It 
has been found that by using an oil binder the sand could be 
easily passed through the tube of the machine and satisfactory 
cores made. 

In making a core of the simpler form, such as shown at i, 
2, 3, or 4, Fig. 102, a core box of wood or metal is tucked or 
rammed full of sand of the proper mixture and the sand leveled 



142 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



off flush with the top of the box. The box is then covered 
with an iron plate called a core plate, and rolled over so that 
the plate is underneath. The box is rapped to free it from the 
sand core and is then carefully lifted, leaving the core on the 
plate. Plate and core are then placed in an oven and baked. 
The other cores shown in Fig. 102 are more complicated, 
although the general method of making them is the same. In 




Fig. 102. — Typical Cores. 



order to form a core of the desired shape it is often necessary 
to make it in a number of pieces and afterward fasten these 
together by various means according to the size and character 
of the core. For instance, core 7 is made in halves, each half 
requiring a special box. After drying, the two halves are 
cemented together with paste, the joint between the two being 
the line X. The side view of this core is shown at 8. 

As the sands and binder of which the cores are made, give 
off large quantities of gas when the molds are poured, great 
care must be exercised, especially with the larger cores, in 
providing ample vent channels for the escape of this gas. 
These channels are arranged to lead the gas from all parts 



DRY-SAND CORES 1 43 

of the core to a main vent whence they are conducted into 
vent channels in the sand forming the mold itself. If the cores 
are improperly vented the gases generated will be imprisoned 
and may burst the core with disastrous effects on the casting. 
Consider core ii. After the core box is filled with sand and 
rammed, it is slicked level with the top, and a channel is cut 
lengthwise in each half of the core. From this channel, holes 
are formed, leading to the deeper parts of the core to conduct 
the gases to this main vent. The two halves of the core are 
cemented together, the paste being laid entirely around the 
edge of one half with the exception of the space immediately 
over the end of the main vent. The paste must not be allowed 
to get into the vent and close it, or the gas will be imprisoned 
in the core. After the two halves are cemented together, a 
mixture of fine molding sand and molasses water, known in the 
foundry as slurry, is rubbed on the joint between the two 
halves in order to smooth it and avoid making a seam on the 
interior of the casting. This operation is known as slurrying 
the cores. Referring to the remaining cores shown in Fig. 102, 
cores Nos. 9, 11, 13, 14, and 15 are made in halves and after- 
ward pasted together. Special attention is called to core 9 as 
it illustrates the practice adopted where it is impossible to 
bring the main vent out at the end of the core. This is often 
the case where iron is flowed over the ends of the cores and it 
is necessary to bring the vent to the most convenient point 
for the escape of gases. In the core under consideration, the 
main \'ent is brought out of the core at 20. The iron flows 
around the greater portion of the core. That portion on which 
the numbers are inscribed forms the print resting in the core- 
print on the mold. At XX are seen two staples through which 
wire may be threaded to hold the core in place when it is sus- 
pended from the cope. 

While cores may be of any shape, the position they occupy 
in the mold may subject them to heavy strain and their pro- 
portions at times may be such that the heavier part must be 
supported by a light portion. Such a case is core 12. With a 
core of this character, rods are set in the core when it is made to 



144 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



strengthen it. The core box for this core is shown in Fig. 103 
at A. At 5 is shown the opposite half of this core box partially 
filled with sand mixture, v/ith the strengthening rods set in 
position to support the various parts of the core. These rods 
are covered either with claywash or paste, to make the sand 
adhere to them and bake hard on them. C is the completed 




Fig. 103. 



-Core Box, Showing Method or Roddi.no aad \'enting 
Core. 



core, being identical with that shown at 12, Fig. 102. At D 
is the finished casting showing the cavities formed by the 
cores C. 

The size of the strengthening rods is increased with the 
size of the core, and with the larger sizes the rods will not 
suffice and resort must be had to grids or skeletons of cast-iron 
made to conform with the shape of the core. These are either 
used alone or in connection with rods. When making these 
grids, it should be borne in mind that iron shrinks one-eighth 
of an inch per foot when passing from the molten to the solid 
state, and in using heavy, strong grids in cores, these must not 
be allowed to approach close to the sides or ends of the cores, 
lest the iron in the casting in shrinking bind on the grid which 
tends to expand with the heat, and thus be cracked or broken. 
In making these grids, a bed of molding sand is usually made 
in the floor and the core box laid on the bed and its outline 



DRY-SAND CORES I45 

traced ; after which the shape of grid necessary to fit the inside 
of the box is cut out of the sand. Grids for heavy engine cast- 
ings, and the Hke, require patterns and in some foundries a 
special floor is reserved for the molding of grids. 

In order to allow the larger sizes of cores to be compressed 
by the shrinking of the casting, pockets are formed of coke or 
cinders in the core which is made strong enough to resist the 
strains of pouring and yet sufficiently weak to compress with 
the shrinkage of the casting. These compression pockets also 
act as vents to carry gas from the core and often have vents 
from more distant parts led to them by means of wax tapers. 

Wax tapers are made of a thread coated with wax or 
paraffine similar to a candle. They are laid in the core wher- 
ever desired and sand rammed around them. When the core is 
baked in the oven, the wax melts and is absorbed by the sand, 
leaving a hole in the core, through which the gas escapes 
from the surrounding sand. By the use of wax tapers, vents 
can be made in the core wherever desired with but little trouble 
and expense. Wax tapers are used in such cores as locomotive 
cylinder ports and others in which it would ordinarily be diffi- 
cult to lead a vent around a corner. They are also used to a 
considerable extent in very thin cores and their use is becoming 
quite general. 

Many cores do not require rodding. Among these are 
what are ordinarily termed stock cores, which are generally 
round and of difTerent diameters. These are made up in 
quantities of varying length and are cut off to the length re- 
quired. When used in a vertical position, they seldom require 
to be strengthened with rods; but when set horizontally, rods 
are required if the cores are of any length in order to prevent 
them breaking or springing when the mold is poured. When 
set in pulleys, it is usually best to rod the core as there is a 
considerable length exposed to iron. 

Often cores of irregular shape, when made in quantities, 
are baked in what are known as core dryers. This is simply a 
cast-iron box of the same shape as the core in which the core 
is placed when it is removed from the core box, instead of 



146 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

being set on a core plate. The advantage of the core dryer is, 
that there is no possibility of the core losing its shape, while 
drying. 

In recent years, the importance of mixing the different 
binders with the core sand has been appreciated, and mixing 
machinery has been generally introduced in the larger foun- 
dries. In these machines, oil is fed to the mixture automatic- 
ally in the desired proportions, to give the best result. The 
importance of preparing the sand for use has long been recog- 
nized in foreign countries and much attention has been given 
to it. 

Closely allied to molding machines, are machines for 
making cores. In fact, the development of the molding 
machine, increasing as it did the output of foundries, de- 
manded better facilities for furnishing cores in the quantities 
required than were possible with the ordinary hand equipment 
of the core room. The machines most commonly used are for 
the purpose of forming stock cores, and consist of a screw which 
forces the core mixture through a tube of the proper diameter 
to form the core. The length of the tube has a direct influence 
on the quality of the core, the hardness of the finished core 
being increased as the length of the tube is increased. Cores 
often come from the machine too hard for the purpose desired 
and the fault can be remedied by shortening the tube; the 
machines are also arranged to make triangular, octagonal, and 
elliptical cores with satisfactory results. The machines form 
a vent hole through the center and, if desired, insert a rod 
lengthwise of the core to strengthen it. The core comes from 
the machine perfectly straight and is delivered on a plate with 
grooves in it to keep the core in shape. Liquid core binders are 
generally used with machines and cores up to eight inches 
diameter can be made in certain types. The sand used is as 
a rule new sand, only a small amount of burnt core sand being 
added. This is mixed with oil in the proportions of forty or 
fifty parts of sand to one of oil. 

The use of machines for making stock cores has enabled 
their length to be increased to about eighteen inches instead 



DRY-SAND COKE'S I47 

of twelve as formerly. It has also enabled more perfect cores 
to be secured. Formerly, round cores were made in half 
boxes and the halves pasted together. Now they are either 
made in whole boxes or by machine. Cores made in halves 
and pasted together are slightly elliptical in cross section and 
therefore not as good as the machine-made cores. 

Cores, after molding, are baked in any one of the standard 
core ovens which are on the market. These ovens are heated 
by gas, oil, or coke, as may be most convenient. Core 
ovens for the larger-size cores are provided with tracks on 
which flat cars, or cars carrying racks on which the cores are 
placed, may be run into the oven for baking. In certain types 
of core oven, the door is in one piece and slides upward, being 
counterbalanced. In others it is in the form of a roller 
curtain. In the smaller types, the doors are hung on hinges. 
The core ovens of the Dickson Car Wheel Co., Houston, 
Texas, represent good practice. The cores in dryers are placed 
on racks on a large carriage which is run into one of three 
ovens by means of a transfer table. The floor of the oven 
consists of iron plates, cast with two-inch holes in them. The 
fire box is located back in the oven below the level of the oven 
floor. Heat from the fire is drawn under the floor and passes 
up through holes in the plate as well as from plates into the 
core oven. About two hours and a half are required to dry a 
car load of cores. 

The even distribution of heat in core ovens has been given 
considerable attention. Unevenly distributed heat causes 
considerable annoyance, to say nothing of giving poor results 
in baking cores. In many ovens it has been necessary to set 
the cores as high up in the oven as possible in order to dry 
them, and in handling large cores this has caused much trouble 
and loss of time. At the foundry of the Allis-Chalmers Co., 
the large ovens are fired at the back in a specially built fire 
box and the heat drawn through an opening in the back of the 
oven. Special flues are arranged to draw the heat to various 
parts of the oven as desired. Other designs include fire pots 
placed in the corner of the oven and lowered as close as possible 



148 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



to the floor. In still other ovens a series of flues are run under 
the floor and, in most of the larger ovens, flues are provided to 
carry off the steam from the core. These are closed at a certain 
stage and the heat confined to the oven. 

While the greater number of cores used are made in more 
or less expensive boxes, or by machines, it is sometimes 
desirable to make a core as cheaply as possible, few being 
required. For such cases core boxes often are made separable 




F1G.104-CORE BOX FOR 
AN INEXPENSIVE CORE 



4 



/ 



3^ 



F1G.I05-CORE BOX FOR 
A COVER CORE 




core box for a cover core for a pulley 
Figs. 104-106. 



at two diagonally opposite corners, and having no top or bot- 
tom, as shown in Fig. 104. In use the box is placed on a core 
plate, being held together by the core-maker and filled with 
core sand. After slicking off with the trowel, the box is 
removed, leaving the core on the plate. 

Again cores known as "cake cores" or "cover cores" 
are called for, these being used as "covering cores. " They are 
made in a box consisting of a frame, of the required size and 
depth on the inside, as Fig. 105. Sometimes these cores require 
rodding to strengthen them, and often they are made of a 
strong mixture, and kept on hand. If for covering the rim of a 
pulley and shaped as shown in Fig. 106, they are given a coat 
of blacking on one side, and the larger cores are vented from 
the opposite side. These cores are used blackened side down. 



DRY-SAND CORES 1 49 

Some cores are swept by means of guides and sweeps. Thus 
a cylinder core of considerable size may be swept in either of 
these ways. 

Fig. 107 shows a barrel or center core made in this manner. 
The straight edge A, Fig. 108, is clamped to the core plate B, 
and the core arbor D is placed in position, being raised on the 
core plate one inch as seen at C, Fig. iii. Cinders or molding 
sand E, Fig. 108, are placed as shown and the core-sand mix- 
ture is rammed around the arbor until it is as high as the top 
of the arbor. Rods F, Fig. 108, are driven down alongside the 
arbor to hold the sand which is to hang below the arbor. 
Sometimes these arbors are cast with prongs extending below 
the backbone O of the core arbor to hold the hanging sand to 
the arbor, but arbors can also be used without them, and the 
sand can be held as above. Care should be used that the rods 
do not come high enough to interfere with the passing of the 
sweep over them when the core is swept. At times, if there is 
a large body of sand hanging, these rods are bent to a hook 
shape and used as a gagger C, Fig. no, one end being hooked 
under the arm of the backbone, and the other end coming near 
the top of the core as it is swept forms an inverted gagger, so 
that the sand is held firmly to the arbor. False ends, cut from 
boards, shown at A and B, Fig. 1 10, are now set on edge on the 
ends of the arbor at Fand G, Fig. io8, and the sand is rammed 
over the arbor between these ends. The sweep A, Fig. 109, is 
used to shape the core, the part C pressing against the inside 
edge E of straight-edge D, as the sweep is moved lengthways of 
the core. The core is well vented down to the cinders E, Fig. 
108, the vent holes are filled, and core trued with the strike, 
and finished with the trowel. It is usually blacked while green 
and the blacking slicked. 

If the core is long, one or two gate-sticks are set over the 
hole H, Fig. io8, to form an opening. When the lower half 
is dried and rolled over, the top half is dried, after which the 
upper half is rubbed on the lower half and the core brought to 
size. If molding sand has been used to form the channels for 
the vent, it is now removed. The core, when found to caliper 



150 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

the right diameter, is pasted together, and the joint is slurried 
as were the smaller cores. In addition, a long core is bolted 
together in the center as well as at the ends. 

The top half of the core is made exactly as the lower half 
was, but as it is not rolled over, there is no hanging sand, and 
no rodding is required. In rolling over the lower half of a large 
core, a bed of molding sand usually is made on the floor and 
the core rolled over on it. In doing so care must be exercised 
that the edge is not broken. If cinders are used for the vent, 
they are left as rammed up in the core as they form a porous 
mass through which the gas escapes easily. 

When the core is bolted together in the center, the heads 
of the bolts are covered with the core-sand mixture, and in 
order to hold this sand in the hole formed, spikes are driven 
into the sides. These places are blackened over and the core 
placed in the oven to dry the paste and blacking. If the nole 
in the center of the halves is large, it is well to put cinders at 
the bottom of the core so that the gases will escape through 
them from this portion. When filling in the sand it should 
be vented down to the cinders; as, in order to have a sound, 
clean cylinder barrel, it is important that the center core be 
thoroughly dry and well vented. 

Another method of venting a core is to have holes in the 
end pieces, as D, Fig. no, and when the core sand is rammed 
high enough three-eighths inch rods are placed through these 
holes, extending about eight inches beyond the ends of the 
core. When the half of the core is finished the rods are with- 
drawn, leaving vent holes near the surface, but still so far down 
that the iron cannot enter them. In some foundries these 
ends. Fig. no, are made of cast-iron and are arranged to be 
bolted to the core plate. When such is the case, the arbor D, 
Fig. io8, is claywashed and placed on the plate, and ends. Fig. 
no, bolted to the plate. The ends A and B have slots to ac- 
commodate the arbor. The sand is rammed up to the proper 
height on the arbor, hook rods or gaggers being used as in the 
first case, or when the sand has been rammed high enough, 
straight rods may be driven down between the arms on the 



DRY-SAND CORES 

Fig. 107 



151 





'h hB 



Figs. 107-112. — Sweeping Cores on an Arbor. 



152 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



arbor. Rods to form vents are run through the holes in the 
ends A and B, these rods extending beyond the core. The sand 
is rammed above the ends over the vent-rods and is then swept 
off level by the sweep E, Fig. 112, using the ends as guides. 
The half core is then finished, and the strike laid down flat 
over each vent-rod, and rod drawn out, thus keeping the rod 




1 



1^ 



Fig. 113. — Making a Formed Core by Means of a Strickle. 



from breaking out through the sand sideways. The ends are 
then removed. 

The finished half core is seen at A , Fig. 1 1 1 , resting on the 
core plate B, with the core arbor C projecting from it. In 
order to hoist the core up with the plate, holes D are cored in 
the plate. 

It will be seen in sweeping cores that by having a core plate 
arranged in this way, formed cores of different diameters may 
be swept by having the plate ends of proper size, and having 
the outline of the core wished made in the sweep or strike, 
at times called strickles, as shown at A and B, Fig. 113. 

In many of the large foundries making steam-engine cast- 
ings, it is the custom to sweep up the center or barrel core on 



DRY-SAND CORES 



153 



large core barrels made of cast-iron, thus effecting a saving of 
core sand, labor, and time of drying. Some of these barrels 
are cast in halves, and when the two have been covered with 
the core-sand mixture and dried, they are bolted together. Fig. 
115 shows one-half of the core barrel A resting on core plate C, 
with removable ends B bolted to the core plate. An end is 



Fig. 118 STRIKE 




Fig. 114 THE FINISHED CORE 



Figs. 114-118. — Barrel Cores Made on Core Barrel with Horns. 



shown, Fig. 116, and D, Fig. 117, with horns for holding the 
sand to the barrel, and between the horns are the holes 
through the barrel E for bringing the vent to the inside of 
the barrel. In use, the core barrel is first given a coating of 
claywash, and is placed on core plate C, Fig. 115, and the 
ends B are bolted to the barrel or plate. 

A mixture is made of four parts of coarse New Jersey fire 
sand, and two parts of coarse molding sand, to which is added 
flour in the proportion of one flour to twelve of sand, and after 
the mixture has been well mixed and riddled, it is wet with 
molasses water in the proportion of one part molasses to six- 
teen parts water, and thoroughly tempered. The core-maker 
then uses it by placing double handfuls of the mixture on the 



154 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

core barrel, and Math his fingers pressing it down in between 
the horns. In some cases a bench rammer is used to ram it 
down on the core barrel, depending on the length of the horns. 
The sweep. Fig. ii8, is then used to true the core to the size 
wished. In passing it over the core the first and second time, 
places will be found requiring attention and hand work to 
made them solid. This is done and the sweep passed over the 
core until it is of th^ right size, when the core is blackened 
and slicked. This half is placed in the oven or on a carriage 
and the ends B removed to be used in sweeping another 
half. 

When the bottom half is dry, a piece of shafting is run 
through the holes in the ends, and this half is turned on the 
bar F, Fig. 117, and the joint is pasted. The top half having 
some of the sand scraped away at the joint to bevel it, it is 
placed on the lower half and the two bolted together at G 
and C, Fig. 117. If the core is of too great length to trust the 
ends alone to hold, it is bolted together at H, Fig. 115. 

The joint is next filled and pasted, the joint blackened, and 
the core dried in the oven. When the core is in use in the mold, 
the barrel expands and allowance must be made for this, as 
the cylinder is shrinking at the same time, and the horns may 
bind on the inside of the cylinder, rendering it difificult to 
remove the core barrel. 

In making cores for small castings when there is but a small 
amount of iron surrounding the core which is made of fine 
sand, the casting soon cools and the core is easily rapped out, 
leaving usually a smooth enough hole for ordinary purposes 
in the casting. But as the cores increase in size and the 
amount of metal surrounding them increases in thickness and 
weight, causing burning of the core, it becomes necessary to 
protect the face of the core to prevent the iron from burning it, 
or in some cases from destroying its face and producing a rough 
casting. This is done by coating the core with a coat of black- 
ing. This may be silver lead, wet with molasses water, or the 
same lead wet with clay water. Red New Jersey fire-clay is 
generally used in the clay water, but blue clay, as found in 



DRY-SAND CORES 1 55 

many parts of the United States, will answer if sufficiently 
refractory. The blacking protects the core from the intense 
heat of the iron, so that when the casting is cleaned, the sand is 
easily freed from it and the casting is found to be of the shape 
of the core set in the mold. See Chapter XXII, relative to 
facing materials. 



CHAPTER XIV . 

SETTING CORES AND USING CHAPLETS 

Cavities in castings are formed by means of cores of green 
or dry sand, the dry-sand cores being made as described in 
Chapter XIII. The dry-sand cores are set in the mold in core- 
prints formed by projections on the pattern which locate the 
cores accurately in regard to the rest of the mold. As the 
pressure of the iron in filling the molds would tend to float the 
core to the top of the mold, it must be held down. by chaplets, 
as shown in Figs. 120 to 125. If the core is long or if the casting 
is of such shape that the core is supported by the core-print 
at only one end, it is necessary to use chaplets to support it 
at the opposite end or at various points along its length. In 
Fig. 119 are illustrated various forms of chaplets, each one of 
which has its special uses and is adapted to various classes of 
work. 

The chaplets A to Fare formed of perforated sheet tin, and 
will resist a heavier crushing stress than would be imagined. 
The chaplet A with one flat and one concave side is used to 
support a round core above a flat surface, or vice versa. 
Chaplet B, with one concave and one convex surface, is used 
with a round core in a cylindrical mold. The chaplet C is 
similar to the one shown at F and is used in situations similar 
to those requiring B, but, having four side walls and being 
larger, will resist a greater crushing stress. Chaplets D and E 
are used either over or under cores for holding them down or 
supporting them, E being used in the heavier classes of work.^ 
These chaplets are used on the lighter classes of castings, 
although they can be used on rather heavy work if desired, the 
thickness of metal of which they are formed being varied to 
suit the requirements of the case. The chaplet shown at H 
is what is known as a water back or front chaplet and is used to 

156 



SETTING CORES AND USING CHAPLETS 




Fig. 119. — Types of Chaplets. 



158 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

hold the cores in the water backs of stoves. It is made of 
material to which the iron will readily flux when poured. 

Chaplets /, /, K, L, and M are used on the heavier classes 
of work both to hold cores down, to support them in the mold 
and to prevent their moving sideways. They are used in con- 
nection with castings weighing many tons and in various 
combinations with one another. Chaplets G and I are the 
most commonly used types. They are composed of a head 
with a shank or stem which may be either pointed as shown at 
M or blunt. They are usually provided with serrations F, 
near the head, which will prevent the chaplet in any way 
from being driven or working out of the casting if by any 
chance the metal of the chaplet does not fuse with that of the 
casting when the mold is poured. If the chaplets G or I are 
to be used to support the core, the stem is pointed and driven 
through the drag into the bottom-board about a quarter of an 
inch. Chaplet G is formed of a stem with a flat head riveted to 
it, while chaplet / is made in one piece by upsetting the stem to 
form the head. Chaplet L is formed with a pin projecting 
above the head, which may be inserted in holes in the plate of 
a chaplet similar to K, which has shoulders on the stem to 
prevent the plate from sliding up on it under the pressure of 
the entering metal. The stem of the chaplet L is projected 
through the sand of the mold and either driven into the 
bottom-board or wedged against the binder, as will be de- 
scribed later, and thus transmits the pressure on chaplet K 
to the flask. P is a forged chaplet used in situations similar to 
those in which K is used. Larger heads may be desired than 
are possible on forged chaplets and, by using double-ended 
stems similar to those used in chaplet K and plates of different 
sizes as N, a chaplet of any desired size and shape may be made. 
It is advisable, in foundries doing a general class of work, to 
keep on hand a supply of these stems and plates. / and are 
small, double-ended chaplets used for the same purpose as K, 
while R, S, and T are chaplets of small size, pressed out of tin, 
which are convenient for nailing on the side of a mold and to 
place between, over, or under small cores. 



SETTING CORES AND USING CHAPLETS 1 59 

Chaplets used in steam-, water-, gas-, and air-cylinder cast- 
ings are always tinned where they come in contact with the 
molten iron, the tin acting as a flux and causing the chaplet 
to unite with the metal of the casting and thus form a joint 
which will not leak under pressure. 

Referring now to Figs. 120-122, we have respectively an 
end section, a plan, and a sectional plan of a cylindrical mold 
with a cylindrical core, which illustrate the method of placing 
the core and using the chaplet. Assume the pattern to be ten 
inches diameter and the core to have a diameter of eight inches, 
the thickness of the wall of the casting thus being one inch. 
A gauge A or B is made, with the notch C cut one inch deep 
and sufficiently wide to fit over the edge of the chaplet. The 
thickness of sand being ascertained by pushing the vent-wire 
through the mold where the chaplet is to be set, there is added 
to this length the thickness of metal of the casting plus one- 
quarter inch which the chaplet will be driven into the bottom- 
board, and the stem is cut off to the proper length and pointed. 
The chaplet is then driven down through the sand into the 
bottom-board and the head allowed to project one inch above 
the surface of the mold, this height being determined by the 
notch in the gages A or B. The bottom of the notch is set 
against the head of the chaplet and the top of the notch should 
rest on the surface of the mold. The mold in question is for a 
column eight feet long. The core-prints at either end of the 
mold are six inches long and, therefore, the core is cut off to a 
length of nine feet. To prevent sagging, it is supported at the 
middle by a chaplet placed in the mold as described above. 
To prevent the core from moving sideways, chaplets G are 
placed on either side of the core as shown, a channel being cut 
in the sand at the joint and a wedge driven between the flask 
and the blunt end of the stem, which is cut about three-eighths 
Inch short of the distance between the core and the inside of 
the flask. Side chaplets and wedges are then covered with 
sand and the joint left in its former condition. 

The thickness of sand in the cope over the pattern is then 
ascertained, and to it is added the thickness of metal in the 



l60 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

casting. A chaplet is cut off to this length and the end of the 
stem left blunt. A large vent-wire is used to make a hole 
through the sand at the spot where the chaplet is to be placed, 
and after the chaplet has been inserted in this hole it is held 
in position by pinching the sand around it at the top of the 
cope, after which the cope is closed on the drag. The molder 
then moves the chaplet up and down to make sure that it 
bears on the core, after which strips of wood / are laid on the 
edge of the flask and a binder / laid across the cope over the 
top of the chaplet. The binder / is fastened to binder K 
under the bottom-board and the two held together with rod 
bolts L. A wedge O is then driven firmly between the binder 
and the top of the chaplet to hold the latter tightly against the 
core, but not so firmly as to drive the latter into the core. 
The wedge should not be driven until after the binders have 
been tightened; otherwise the chaplet might be driven into 
the core or force it down lower than desired. 

The chaplet E, Fig. 120, is purposely shown set in the wrong 
position in order to illustrate a common fault in setting chap- 
lets, which must be avoided. Unless the stem of the chaplet is 
driven truly vertical through the sand, the chaplet will bear 
on a single point and when the strain due to the pouring of 
the mold comes on it, it will either bend or be forced into the 
core. In any event the core will rise more or less in the mold 
and render the casting thinner on that side than it should be. 
It is necessary that the chaplet have a firm bearing on the core 
and, to do this, it must stand vertical. 

Fig. 123 illustrates the use of several different types of 
chaplets. At yl is a double-ended chaplet resting on a piece of 
a baked core set in the sand in the drag, placed there for the 
special purpose of holding it. At 5 is a single-end, long-stem 
pointed chaplet, such as we have just described. In the cope, 
at C, is a chaplet set correctly, while at Z) is a similar one set 
incorrectly. Instead of binders and bolts, clamps are used for 
securing the cores. Strips of wood E are laid on the edge of 
the flask and over them a bar or piece of wood / passing over 
the tops of the chaplets. The clamp G is placed to hold these 



SETTING CORES AND USING CHAPLETS 



I6l 




N M 




±^y^ USE OF VARIOUS CHAPLETS 

^'"^ FiG.123 



END SECTION OF MOLD 
FiQ.120 
A 




SECTIONAL PLAN OF MOLD 
Fie. 122 



MOLD FOR A QUARTER TURN 
PIPE ELBOW 
Fie. 125 



Figs. 120-125. — Setting Chaplets, 



1 62 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

bars E and the bottom-board F together, the clamp being 
wedged in place by the wedge H. Wedges / are inserted 
between the top of the chaplets and the bar /. This core does 
not require any side chaplets. It will be observed that, this 
mold being quite deep in the cope, there will be a considerable 
lifting tendency due to the high head of metal. The bar / 
must, therefore, be made heavy enough to resist any tendency 
to spring; otherwise the core will lift and iron may enter the 
vent. 

Figs. 124 and 125 show the mold for a quarter-turn pipe 
elbow. After the cope has been made, an iron bar B with a 
lug A projecting from its side is placed in the top of the cope 
at the point where the chaplet is to be placed, the stem of the 
chaplet coming under this lug. The stem of the chaplet is cut 
to such a length that it will fit snugly against this lug and pro- 
ject into the mold the proper distance to give the necessary 
thickness of metal, or the stem may be cut short and a wedge 
C driven between the bar B and the chaplet. 



CHAPTER XV 

GATES AND GATING 

As many castings required from a single pattern are small, 
it obviously would be poor economy to mold each casting 
separately. It would not improve matters much to have a 
number of similar patterns separate from each other and mold 
them all in the same flask. The general practice in foundries, 
when many similar small castings are to be made, is to string 
them on a gate, as it is termed. Saddlery, shelf hardware, 
and small machine parts are made in this fashion. This 
method is indispensable in the making of castings for inter- 
changeable machinery, as castings can be made truer to pattern 
when they are gated than when they are molded singly. 

The process of gating is as follows : A single master pattern 
is made with an allowance, perhaps, for finishing. From this 
master pattern are made the requisite number of castings to 
fill a flask. These castings are finished to the pattern size 
and are then attached to a gate as shown at A, B, C, D, and 
E, Fig. 126. They are arranged, according to the shape of the 
casting, in such a manner as to permit the greatest possible 
number to be placed in a flask, and they are also attached to 
the gate in the best method for pouring. 

When ready for use, a match-board is made of plaster of Par- 
is or of litharge and sand mixed with linseed oil. This match- 
board in appearance resembles the green-sand match-board 
made in the upset, shown in Fig. 9. The match-board corre- 
sponds to the cope as the pattern is placed on it, cope side 
down, when molding is begun. The drag is rammed up over 
the match-board exactly as in any other pattern, pockets 
being secured with nails or soldiers in the usual manner. As a 
rule, however, patterns which are gated in this fashion, are 
so arranged that they ma\' have the sand riddled on them and 

16.^ 



1 64 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



be rammed up without any other work. After roUing over the 
drag, parting sand is dusted on as soon as the match is Hfted. 
Should the match be any the worse for wear, a thin layer of 
sand may adhere to the pattern. The gate should then be 
rapped slightly to jar this sand loose, after which it may be 
blown away with the bellows. As a rule, however, it is better 




Fig. 126. — Methods of Gating Patterns. 



to have a new match-board made than to work with one with 
which this procedure is necessary. 

A small hole is left at the center of the gate, being clearly 
shown in the illustration. The gate-stick is set in this hole and 
the cope is then rammed and struck off. The gate-stick is 
withdrawn, but, before lifting off the cope, the molder places 
a bar through the gate-hole in the pattern and raps it gently, 
thus jarring the pattern loose in the cope and drag at the same 
time. By doing this, the pattern is jarred an equal amount 
in both cope and drag and the finished casting will be found to 
be without evidence of a seam or parting at the joint. In 
order that it may be possible to jar a pattern in this manner, 



GATES AND GATING 1 65 

the cope and drag must be tight, that is, they must have no 
motion with relation to each other, due to the pins on the flask 
being loose in the pin-holes. The gate of patterns is then 
drawn from the drag without further rapping. This is usually 
done by screwing a drawpeg in the rapping hole, or if the pat- 
terns are gated many times, pins are pro\ided in the pattern 
for this purpose. Gates of patterns are seldom boshed in the 
drag as, on the drag side, steady-pins, shown at G, Fig. 126, 
are provided. These are round pins of small diameter, extend- 
ing below the deepest part of the pattern to guide it when the 
pattern is drawn from the sand and thus avoid breaking the 
sand and altering the shape of the casting. The object of ar- 
ranging the pattern on gates is to have the pattern, when 
drawn, leave a perfect mold, as there must be no stopping to 
repair broken molds if the maximum output and quality of 
castings is to be obtained. Patterns are gated usually for 
machine work, in which case they are arranged so that they 
can be attached to a vibrator in which compressed air is used 
for rapping; a greater output is thereby obtained. 

Patterns are often gated on match-plates as shown in Fig. 
127. Where there are many castings to be made, half of the 
pattern is mounted on one side of the plate and half on the 
other, for the cope and drag respectively. The plate itself is 
usually of cast-iron planed to one-quarter inch thickness. In 
mounting the patterns, they are, wherever possible, finished 
and the two halves are drilled through so that they will match 
as desired. One-half of the pattern is then placed in the desired 
position on the match-plate and used as a jig for drilling the 
match-plate. The other half of the pattern is attached to 
the opposite side of the plate and, the holes in the plate and 
the two halves of the pattern being aligned, the two halves of 
the pattern will correspond exactly in position with each other. 
The halves of the pattern are fastened to the match-plate by 
pins extending through the pattern and the plate. The gate 
is also attached to the drag side of the plate as shown at D in 
Fig. 127. The patterns on either side of the match-plates 
A and B in this illustration are alike, although this is not 



1 66 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



necessarily a characteristic of match-plate patterns. For 
instance, the pattern C differs on the two sides of the plate. 
In molding with match-plates, the cope of the flask is 
placed directly on the bench, joint side up. The match-plate 
is set on the cope and the drag on the match-plate, the pins 
of the drag extending through tight holes in the match-plate. 
The arrangement of the flask and match-plate is shown at C, 
Fig. 127. The drag is rammed up first, the bottom-board 




Fig. 127. — Gating Patterns on Match- Plates. 



rubbed to a bearing, and the entire flask rolled over. The 
gate-stick or gate-pin is set, the cope rammed up, struck ofT, 
and the gate-pin removed. The match-plate is rapped and the 
cope removed, being guided ofT the pattern by the flask pins. 
The match-plate is next removed, it also being guided by the 
flask pins. Rapping the match-plate jars the sand alike in 
cope and drag. 

In foundries where compressed air is used, the air is usually 
piped to the benches, so that in hand molding compressed 
air may be used for vibrating all match-plate patterns, it 
being possible to attach vibrators to any match-plate. Match- 
plates also are commonly used on molding machines. It is 
possible, by using match-plates, to increase the output of a 
foundry to a remarkable extent when compared with single- 
pattern molding handled one-half a pattern at a time. In 



GATES AND GATING 1 67 

making match-plates, it is usually best to cast the match-plate 
with the patterns on it at the same time. 

The process of casting the match-plate, with patterns on it, 
is as follows: Consider the match-plate A, Fig. 128. The 
patterns, ten in number, are split through the center, forming 
a cope and drag half for each pattern. The drag halves are 
placed on the mold-board in the position shown, joint side 
down, and the drag is made and rolled over. The joint is 
carefully made, and the cope is rammed up, the gate-stick 
being set far enough away from the patterns to allow for mak- 
ing a plate around them and gating into it. The cope is lifted 
off and carefully finished, as much parting sand being removed 
as possible. An upset or frame, of the thickness that is desired 
for the match-plate, and of the same size as the flask with 
which it is to be used, is placed on the joint of the flask and 
around the patterns, and a frame, the size and shape of the 
match-plate desired, is placed. This is shown at B. The sand 
is then cut and roughed between the frames B and the sides 
and ends of the upset, which has been placed on the joint of 
the drag C. This keeps in position the sand that is built on 
the top of the sand joint, between the drag and the frame B. 
This sand is piled on by hand and struck off level with the top 
of the upset on the joint of flask C, and the frame B forming 
the match-plate, is then drawn from the drag. 

The process consists essentially in molding the patterns in 
the flask and, after drawing them from the cope and drag, of 
deepening the drag by adding one-quarter of an inch of sand 
at the joint. A mold of this character naturally requires 
greater care in finishing than an ordinary mold, inas- 
much as it is to form a casting, which will be used as a 
master pattern, and any imperfections in this casting will 
be repeated many times over in the castings made from it as 
a pattern. In pouring this mold, one side is usually raised 
slightly as shown, by the wedge K, so that the iron entering 
the mold may fill one side first and flow up over the face of 
the drag a little at a time. With this arrangement, hot iron 
is always flowing down to meet the iron rising along the face 



1 68 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

of the mold, and sharper castings are the result. Certain 
shapes of castings are made better by permitting the iron to 
flow in at the lower side of the mold and using a higher head 
to force it up over the face of the mold as soon as possible. 
Further details regarding gating and mounting patterns on 
match-plates are given in Chapter XIX, on molding machines. 

Types of Gates 

In addition to the arrangement of patterns, as described 
above, the term "gating" is also applied to the method of lead- 
ing iron into the mold. The arrangement of the gate is impor- 
tant, as on it often depends whether or not a clean, sound 
casting will be obtained. Fig. 129, i and 2 show the plan and 
sectional elevation of a gate, arranged to clean the iron as it 
flows into the mold and to prevent impurities in the casting. 
Referring to the plan, a set gate is placed at either corner of 
the pattern, being set in position when the pattern is first 
laid on the mold-board. A short distance behind the set gate, 
are placed the two skim gates A , which are provided with core- 
prints for skim cores. The gate-stick is placed in the cope at B, 
and when the cope is lifted from the drag the gate C is placed 
in the cope. This extends from the gate B to each of the skim 
gates and a channel is cut in the drag under the skim gate, 
the sand being softened where the iron is to drop in it. The 
channel is cut still further to connect the skim gate A with 
the set gate and a core is set in the skim gate, being marked 
"skim core" in the plan. The action of these various gates 
is as follows: Iron being poured fast enough to fill or "choke " 
the gate B, fills the gate C, which assists in restraining any 
dirt in the iron. The iron entering gate A, shown in the plan, 
and flowing underneath the core, is skimmed by the core and 
the dirt is still further restrained. The round part of the 
set gate continues this action and the iron, flowing through a 
deep thin channel into the mold, has but little chance to carry 
dirt or scoria with it into the mold. As dirt or scoria in iron 
has a tendency to rise to the surface, the molder can, by 



GATES AND GATING 



169 




I 



TOP VIEW OF JOINT. 



JSL_lSl_(SL_(SLJSl_iL 



•[WJ IWJ IWJ IWj t^ 



We 






SIDE VIEW. 




side of flask raised for pouring. 
Fig. 128. — Casting a Match-Plate and Patterns. 



170 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

contriving his gates to present pockets or skimming arrange- 
ments similar to the one described above, prevent a large 
amount of these impurities from passing into the mold with 
the iron. An arrangement sometimes used is similar to that 
just described, with the exception that the skim gates are 
omitted, the set gates being depended on to dam the iron 
and thus hold back the scoria. It is, however, necessary to 
keep the gate B choked, inasmuch as the scoria, being more 
fluid than the iron, will flow along the surface of it if it is given 
a chance to enter the cross gate, and thus get into the mold. 
As a general rule, a shallow, wide gate will permit more 
impurities to enter the mold than will a deep, narrow one. 
The arrangement of the gates, shown in plan and elevation 
in Fig. 129, I and 2, is shown in perspective at 3, and the 
course of the iron can be traced through it. Many styles of 
skim gates are on the market, some of them being patented. 

A peg gate is shown in Fig. 129, at 4 and 5. This consists of 
a basin cut in the cope, from which a number of small upright 
gates extend down through the cope to a basin cut in the drag, 
whence a wide gate allows the iron to enter the mold. Fig. 
129, 6, shows a gate commonly used where it is not necessary 
that the iron be kept particularly clean. This is mostly used 
for such castings as building plates and general rough work. 
It consists simply of the upright gate and a channel cut from 
the bottom of this gate to the mold. 

The horn gate is shown at 7. The uses of this gate are many. 
In pouring small gears, it is used to bring the iron into the 
mold, either over or under the teeth of the gear, as described 
in Chapter II, and it is also used as a skim gate. As shown 
in the illustration, the iron flows down the upright gate and 
then through cross gates in either direction to the horn gates, 
whence it enters the mold. As the iron flows down the semi- 
circular portion below the mold, the upper surface of the gate 
acts as a dam. The tendency of the dirt in the iron will be 
to flow with it until the gate is filled at the bottom, and then 
to back up in that portion of the horn gate adjacent to the 
cross gate, thus permitting clean iron only to enter the mold. 



GATES AND GATING 



171 



The flat gate used by stove and sink molders is illustrated in 
Fig. 129 at 9. This type of gate is used for pouring thin 
castings, such as stove tops and bottoms and similar classes 




of work. On sinks, a number of these gates are used at one 
time. As the thin castings cover a large surface, it is dififi- 
cult to cut a thick enough gate in the thin edge of the casting 



172 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

to properly fill the mold and at the same time one which will 
break away from the casting, when cool, without breaking 
with it a portion of the casting itself. Gates of this character 
are also used with molds of cast-iron hollow-ware and with 
building facers. They may be made of any desired width 
but are narrow, not exceeding three thirty-seconds of an inch 
at the point where they adjoin the casting. In pouring with 
this type of gate, the iron is not poured directly into it, but 
is allowed to strike at about the point marked A . 

In molds where it is desirable that the iron enter near the 
bottom, such as molds for steam cylinders, the type of gate 
shown in Fig. 129, at 10 and ii, is used. In making this gate, 
two upright gates are laid in the drag, four or five inches from 
the pattern, and between these and the pattern, the gates C 
are placed. When ramming up the cope, two upright gates, 
somewhat offset from those in the drag, are made, the relative 
position of the two being shown at D and E. These are 
connected by the channel G cut in the drag and a pouring basin 
is cut in the top of the cope so that both gates E will be filled 
at the same time. 

In pouring rolls and large, round, solid castings, whirl gates 
are used to give the iron entering the mold a whirling tend- 
ency and thus throw any dirt in it toward the center, where it 
can work out of the casting by means of a riser on top of the 
casting. The whirl gate is usually made by causing the metal 
to enter the mold at the circumference of the casting and at 
a tangent to it. 

The gating of a mold is a matter that must be left largely 
to the judgment of the molder, depending on the character 
of the mold, as many considerations enter this subject. The 
temperature of the iron has considerable influence on the gat- 
ing, since hot iron will flow faster than cool iron. The rapidity 
with which the mold must be filled, depending on the char- 
acter of castings, must also be considered. In certain types 
of mold, the iron must enter at different places in order to 
fill all parts of the mold properly. Castings wnich have both 
heavy and light parts must often have separate gates of 



GATES AND GATING 1 73 

different sizes leading to the parts of different weights. Where 
a wide plate is to be cast, a gate may be cut across the entire 
end of the casting, or along one side, and from this gate a num- 
ber of ingates or sprues cut from it to the casting, so that the 
iron will cover the entire surface of the mold rapidly. 

In pouring some large molds with peg gates, from a basin, 
it is customary to use iron balls with handles, dipped in thick 
blacking and dried, to stop off each peg gate, one ball being 
placed over each gate, when building the green-sand runner. 
The iron is poured into the basin and first one ball and then 
another is lifted to permit the iron to flow down through the 
gates as desired. In this way the dirt is held in the basin, 
clean iron flowing into the mold from the bottom of the basin. 



CHAPTER XVI 

RISERS, SHRINKHEADS, AND FEEDING HEADS 

A RISER is a hole cut in the cope of a mold to permit the 
iron to rise above the highest point of the casting. It serves a 
number of purposes. It enables the molder to see when the 
mold is filled and thus warns him when to stop pouring to 
avoid straining the casting. It may be used to avoid pocket- 
ing gas in a high part of the mold by being placed on this high 
point of the casting. It may be used as sl flow-off , being placed 
at the highest part of the casting. If metal is permitted to rise 
and flow out of the mold, through this flow-off, a softer casting 
will be produced, at the point where the riser is attached, 
than would be the case were the metal permitted to simply 
rise up and fill the mold. A riser placed near thin parts of 
castings at the joints of molds, connected to these thin parts 
by a gate, the iron being allowed to flow through these gates 
into the riser, will often insure castings more nearly true to 
the shape of the pattern than would be the case were the riser 
omitted. 

Large risers are used for shrinkheads or feeding heads. 
Large bodies of iron, while solidifying, require a certain amount 
of molten iron to be fed to them in order that the casting may 
entirely fill the mold, inasmuch as iron shrinks when solidifying. 
Feeding heads or large risers are provided with large gates 
between the riser and the casting. The gate must be of such 
size that the iron in it will not become solid before the casting 
solidifies. It is essential that the iron be permitted to flow 
freely from the feeder head to supply all deficiencies due to the 
shrinkage of the iron in the mold. 

Castings, up to a certain size, may be fed from feeder heads 
by gravity, if the feeder or shrinkhead is properly propor- 
tioned. With larger castings, a gravity feed would require 

174 



RISERS, SHRINKHEADS, AND FEEDING HEADS 1 75 

a basin at the top of the riser of inconvenient size and to avoid 
this and use a smaller riser, which may be easily broken from 
the casting, pumping or churning is resorted to. The molder 
will place on top of the casting, or at times alongside of it, 
a riser of sufficient diameter to permit the entrance of an iron 
rod. This riser is connected with the mold proper by a larger 
gate. After the mold has been poured, the iron rod is inserted 
in the riser and moved up and down and around the sides of 
the riser. Molten iron is poured into the riser constantly, 
and, by means of the rod, the hot iron is kept in motion in 
the riser and gate and prevented from solidifying until after 
the casting itself has set or frozen. As the casting shrinks in 
solidifying, it draws on the liquid in the riser for sufficient iron 
to make up the shrinkage and fill the mold completely. The 
operation above described is known as churning or pumping. 
When the pumping rod is first pushed down into the riser, care 
should be taken not to allow it to come in contact with the 
sand forming the bottom of the mold, and thus tear up the sand 
which might find its way back into the mold and thus spoil 
the casting. In moving the iron around in the riser, the 
opening kept clear should be as large as possible. The churn- 
ing rod should be struck every few moments with a short bar 
of iron to prevent a ball of iron from forming on it at the point 
where it enters the riser. If the casting is of such size that a 
considerable time is required for churning, extra churning rods 
should be provided for use when the ball forms, as it will do 
eventually. The churning rods should be heated before use 
to prevent their freezing the riser when they are inserted in 
it. As the riser is to furnish hot metal to the rest of the cast- 
ing, it must be kept hot longer than any other portion. In 
churning large castings, it is advisable to fill the top of the 
churning head with powdered charcoal to exclude the air 
from the surface of the iron. 



CRAPTER XVII 

TREATMENT OF CASTINGS WHILE COOLING 

Often castings which have been molded and poured cor- 
rectly are found to be warped and distorted on their removal 
from the sand. This may be due either to improper design or 
to improper treatment of the casting before it is removed from 
the sand. If a heavy part of the casting immediately adjoins 
a light part, the latter will solidify first and the heavy portion, 
cooling later, will shrink and tend to draw away from the 
lighter portion. If the casting does not rupture in this 
operation, strains may be set up which will warp the casting 
out of shape and thus render it worthless. This contingency 
may often be avoided by exposing the heavier part of the 
casting to the air, thus making it cool more rapidly while the 
cooling of the lighter portion is retarded, the entire casting 
thus becoming solid at about the same time. Shrinkage 
strains are thereby avoided and the casting is removed from 
the sand true to patterji. The cooling of the lighter parts is 
retarded often by covering them deeply with sand at the same 
time that the heavier parts are exposed to the air. 

Oftentimes it can be predicted from the shape of the pattern 
the method in which it will cool and the extent to which it will 
be distorted if allowed to cool normally. This distortion can 
be avoided and the effects of unequal cooling counteracted by 
distorting the pattern in the opposite direction an amount 
equal to that distortion it would assume in normal cooling. 
Thus, in casting columns, the pattern is made with the ends 
relatively lower than the middle portion. The mold is made 
with the middle of the column higher than the ends which cool 
last. They are thus thrown up as the casting cools and if the 
right amount of camber has been given to the pattern the 
column will be perfectly straight when cold. The same 

176 



TREATMENT OF CASTINGS WHILE COOLING 1 77 

method is followed in casting the copings for the top of brick 
walls. Cornice work for buildings is usually molded with a 
camber in the same manner. The castings are usually made 
with lips at the edges, for bolting together, combined with 
moldings. The lips on the edges of the plates are often on 
opposite sides of each edge, and the pattern is arranged on the 
mold-board crooked in the opposite direction from which itwill 
crook when cooling. Thus one edge will be crooked in one 
direction and the other in the opposite direction and when the 
casting is cold these edges will be straight and parallel. Lathe 
beds, up to fourteen feet in length, are molded with a camber, 
as the ends tend to rise in cooling. A lathe bed thirty feet 
long, however, is so heavy that the casting in shrinking will 
not lift the ends and therefore these beds are cast with the 
center down. 

Many castings of different lengths must be kept covered at 
the ends in cooling while the sand is dug away from them at the 
center. Often if a casting is of such size and shape that it must 
be left overnight in the sand it is advisable to dig the sand 
away from around the gates. This is to permit the casting to 
shrink while cooling without being held by the gates, and 
thereby having a piece at or near the gates torn out or a crack 
started due to the rigidity of the structure held in one position 
by the gates. 

In certain classes of work it is not sufficient to retard the 
cooling of the thin parts. An artificial supply of heat must 
be provided. Such a case is the casting for a disk crank of a 
stationary engine which consists of an engine crank surrounded 
by a web, the crank and counterbalance being hidden on 
the inside by a plate. This casting is molded with the plate 
face down and the pockets of sand to form the crank and 
counterbalance are lifted out with the cope. After pouring, 
the cope is lifted as soon as possible and the sand dug out of 
these pockets, leaving only enough sand in them. to protect the 
casting. Molten iron is then poured into these pockets or pig 
beds and covered with sand, after which the cores in the hub 
and crank-pin hole are dug out. Thus the thinner portions 



178 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

are continuously supplied with heat until the entire casting 
has cooled uniformly. If this precaution is not adopted, the 
crank disk will either be found cracked when it is taken from 
the sand or strains will be set up which will cause the disk 
to fail when it is forced on the engine shaft by hydraulic 
pressure. 

Castings of U-shaped section should be gated together at 
the top, as in cooling the tendency is for the bow to cool first 
and thus draw the legs of the casting apart, which tendency is 
resisted by the gates, which cool first. If it is impossible to 
gate the casting in this manner, the bow portion should be 
uncovered at the earliest possible moment while the legs of the 
U should be kept covered and their cooling retarded. 

Pulleys for power transmission, with thin rims, should have 
the center core removed as soon as the metal has set, especially 
if the pulley is of large diameter. Often a pulley that is re- 
quired in a hurry is removed from the sand while the hub is still 
red-hot. This condition of affairs will cause a heavy strain 
on the arms and will frequently pull therh from the rim. To 
avoid this condition the sand is dug away from the cope over 
the hub as soon as possible and water poured into the hole 
formed by the core. The rim and arms are kept covered and 
the heat retained in them as long as possible. Large fly-wheels 
and balance-wheels are often cast with the hubs split by means 
of cores, the rim being cast solid. As the rim contracts the 
two parts of the hub are forced together and cracking of the 
arms and rim is avoided. Conversely to the above cases, if 
the rim is heavy and the center comparatively light the rim 
must be uncovered and cooled more rapidly than the center. 

Plates cool first at the edges and frequently are found 
checked. This condition can be cured by removing the cope 
as soon as the casting has solidified, knocking the sand from 
the cope down on the casting and cutting channels in it diago- 
nally across the plate from opposite corners, thus permitting 
the center to cool in advance of the edges. 

Where castings are made with heavy rigid cores in them 
they may be ruptured by shrinking on these cores. Thus, 



TREATMENT OF CASTINGS WHILE COOLING 1 79 

jacketed cylinders having light jacket walls and heavy barrels 
must have the cores removed promptly to prevent the barrel 
cracking away from the jacket. Cored cylinders frequently 
have internal strains set up in them by shrinking on the cores, 
and when the first roughing cut is made on them in the ma- 
chine-shop these strains are relieved and warp the casting, 
which as a result must be annealed. 

In situations where a circle of iron of one thickness has 
another circle of greater thickness cast inside it, there is con- 
siderable danger of cracking owing to the thicker circle cooling 
last and pulling away from the lighter outside one. To offset 
this tendency considerable ingenuity is sometimes required. 
Usually there is one particular spot in castings of this character 
which always gives trouble and, in a certain case, this was 
obviated by placing a chill at a particularly heavy part and 
chilling the iron as it was poured so that it cooled relatively 
faster than at the other portions of the casting. 

In loam molds, provision for shrinkage is made by inserting 
in the mold loam bricks which crush under the contraction of 
the metal, and also by the insertion of iron plates in the mold 
which can be pulled out as soon as the casting is poured and 
thus provide ample space in which the metal may shrink. 
The larger the casting and the faster the cooling, the greater 
is the relative contraction, and this must be borne in mind 
when making the mold, in order that proper provision may be 
made for taking care of this contraction. 

After the casting has been removed from the sand, care 
must be exercised in its treatment until it has cooled down to 
room temperature. A large casting which may be exposed to a 
chilling draft on one side, such as might come from a door 
communicating with outdoors in the winter time, would cool 
more rapidly on that side than on the other and thus crack 
just as surely as it would in the mold had no provision been 
made for crushing the cores. Printing-press cylinders exposed 
to unequal temperatures on opposite sides are especially liable 
to warping. 

The composition of the iron of which the casting is com- 



I80 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

posed also has an influence on its treatment after pouring. 
Light castings of machine parts are usually removed from the 
sand immediately after the mold is poured. These castings 
are high in silicon and lowin sulphur, manganese, and combined 
carbon. A coating of sand frequently adheres to such castings 
in proportion to the thickness, protecting them from the air. 
However, if air does come in contact with the casting, the 
high silicon and the high graphitic carbon content prevent the 
formation of a hard scale. On the other hand, if the sulphur 
and manganese contents are high the reverse will be true and 
a hard scale will form on the castings if the air is permitted to 
strike them before they have cooled to room temperature. It 
is therefore advisable to leave them in the sand until they are 
cold, especially if they are to be machined later. Should it be 
necessary for any reason whatever to remove them from the 
sand promptly they should be poured with iron of a silicon 
content about twenty points higher than ordinarily. 

The thinner the wall of the casting to be machined the 
greater is the danger of removing it from the sand too quickly 
and of forming on the surface of it a hard scale. When un- 
covering such castings, to equalize the cooling, a small amount 
of sand should be allowed to remain on surfaces which are to 
be machined. This will prevent direct contact with the air 
and thus avoid scale and yet will permit the rapid escape of 
heat. 

Castings which are found to be crooked on removal from 
the sand may be straightened by heating them to a red heat 
and then weighting them so that the casting will be bent in 
the opposite direction. Lathe beds and similar castings may 
be treated in this manner, the ends being placed on solid bear- 
ings, the casting arching upward and being heated at the 
center until it is red hot, after which it is weighted and allowed 
to cool. Many times castings may be straightened by peen- 
ing on the hollow side, thus closing the grain of the iron and 
forcing the ends down. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

CLEANING CASTINGS 

For cleaning castings from the sand which adheres to them 
after pouring, three general methods are in use: rattling them 
in a tumbling barrel, pickling, and sand blasting. In rattling, 
the castings are placed together in a horizontal barrel which 
is revolved and the castings fall over and over and against one 
another, and the sand and scale are gradually pounded from 
the surface. This method, however, produces a hard skin on 
the surface of the casting which renders it more difficult to 
machine, and pickling in sulphuric, muriatic, or hydrofluoric 
acid is more generally resorted to for castings which are later 
to be subjected to machine processes. Sand blasting consists 
in directing against the casting, by means of air under a pres- 
sure of from sixty to one hundred pounds per square inch, a 
jet of sharp sand which abrades not only the burned sand but 
also the hard surface of the casting. 

In rattling, the castings are placed in the barrel until it is 
nearly full, together with "stars" or "picks," which are small, 
irregularly shaped pieces of hard iron, and the barrel closed 
and revolved. The castings falling on each other and on the 
"stars" knock from the surface all the burned sand and scale 
and polish each other. In rattling together such castings as 
legs for machines it is advisable to pack the castings in with 
blocks of wood to hold them apart and allow the "stars" to 
do the abrading and polishing when the barrel is revolved. 
Heavy castings of this character are liable to become broken 
if placed in the barrel loose. If the barrel is not well filled with 
castings it is advisable to fill the remainder of the space with 
blocks of wood if the castings are of light character. 

For many purposes rattling is insufficient to clean the 
casting properly. If a casting has been made in raw sand with- 



l82 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

out any facing, the sand will apparently be burned on it. 
Rattling will not remove this burned sand properly and pickling 
is necessary. The pickling bath is placed in a stone or wooden 
trough and may consist of sulphuric acid diluted in the propor- 
tions of one part acid to seven parts water, or of muriatic acid 
and water, or one part of hydrofluoric acid to twenty parts of 
water. The castings should remain in the pickling bath 
about twelve hours and then should be well washed with clear 
water. As much of the sand as possible should be removed 
from them before placing them in the bath. Gears are cleaned 
best by first subjecting them to a sand blast, which loosens the 
sand in the corners of the teeth, and then pickling them. 

The following information concerning the use of hydro- 
fluoric acid is given in a pamphlet issued by the General 
Chemical Company. " Until quite recently castings have been 
cleaned either by mechanical means or by dilute sulphuric 
acid. Sulphuric acid loosens the sand by dissolving the iron 
from under it. On the other hand hydrofluoric acid dissolves 
the sand itself, and therefore acts more promptly, takes much 
less acid, and does not cause a loss of iron. For cleaning cast- 
ings that are to be galvanized, tinned, enameled, nickel-plated, 
or painted, hydrofluoric acid is vastly superior to sulphuric or 
muriatic acid because it leaves a purer metallic surface and 
does not rust the plating or work through the paint. Hydro- 
fluoric acid dissolves more readily than sulphuric or muriatic 
acid, the ordinary rust and magnetic (black) oxide that forms 
on the surface of heated iron. The strength at which the acid 
is used varies with the kind of iron to be cleaned and the time 
in which it is to be finished, but generally it is used in the 
proportions of one gallon of acid to twenty or twenty-five 
gallons of water. The acid should be poured into the water 
and well stirred. Such a solution will clean ordinary castings 
in from one-half hour to one hour. If used of half this strength 
— one gallon of acid to fifty gallons of water — it will take 
several hours. Hydrofluoric acid is used cold, but should be 
kept above the freezing point. The bath can be used re- 
peatedly by adding about one-third the original quantity of 



CLEANING CASTINGS 1 83 

acid before charging again with iron. If it is desired to keep 
the iron bright it should be washed with water at about 
200° Fahr. immediately after coming out of the acid so as 
to dry quickly. By this means all trace of the acid is eradi- 
cated and all chance of corrosion or tarnish resulting is ob- 
viated. If washed with cold water the casting will remain 
wet for some time and rust. A little lime may be added to 
the wash water. For immersing and removing castings from 
the bath, wooden boxes with holes in the sides have been used 
with good results. By this means the sand is retained at 
the bottom of the boxes and is removed with the castings, thus 
saving the strength of the acid when not in use. Spent, weak 
acids should be discarded and the tanks cleaned every month. 
In removing stoppers from vessels containing the acid, care 
should be exercised, as sometimes gas is generated from the 
action of the acid on the lead in which it is enclosed which 
may cause some of the acid to be thrown out if the corks are re- 
moved hastily. The acid is neither explosive nor inflammable. 
As strong acid will cause inflammation wherever it comes in 
contact with the skin it should be handled as carefully as other 
acids. Rubber gloves are the best protection, but if acid has 
splashed on the skin it should be washed off with water and 
diluted borax or sal soda solution, or with aqua ammonia 
which will prevent injury," 



CHAPTER XIX 

MOLDING MACHINES 

Where there are a number of molds to be made from one 
pattern, it is frequently advisable to use a molding machine 
for this purpose. Molding machines are made in a number 
of varieties, each designed for some specific purpose. Thus we 
have the power squeezer and the hand squeezer, the split-pattern 
squeezer, the jarring machine, also known as a jolt rammer, and 
the roll-over machines, which are made to operate entirely by 
hand, or to use poWer for rolling over and drawing the pattern, 
the ramming being done by hand, or to use power both for 
ramming and for rolling over and pattern drawing. Each 
machine has its particular field in which it will do better work 
than one of the other types. 

Where the ramming time is a large factor in the time 
required to make the mold, one of the squeezer machines or 
jarring machines is advisable. However, if the mold is such 
that the finishing time is the largest factor, a machine which 
will draw the pattern should be adopted. This brings us to 
the split-pattern machine which, however, is limited in its 
application to patterns which can be split on a true plane 
and molded one-half in the cope and the other half in the drag, 
or to one of the roll-over machines operated either by hand 
or by power. In selecting the machine to save ramming time 
the character of the mold to be made is the chief considera- 
tion. As the squeezer machine packs the sand to the density 
required for the mold by pressure applied at the outside sur- 
face of the mold, it is not well adapted to molds having deep 
bodies of sand, since in this case the sand will have the greatest 
density at the outer surface instead of against the pattern as is 
required. On the other hand, the jarring machine in which 
the sand itself forms the ramming medium is well adapted to 
molds in which there are large pockets of hanging sand. 



MOLDING MACHINES 1 85 

Having thus considered the general properties of molding 
machines, we will now consider each type in detail. First in 
the list is the hand squeezer. This consists simply of a frame 
carrying a yoke, a plate on which the mold-board is set and 
which can be elevated toward the yoke by means of a hand 
lever operated by the molder. The flask is placed on the 
mold-board with the pattern in it in the proper position and 
sand is riddled over the pattern until it is covered. Sand 
from the heap is then shoveled in and struck off flush with the 
top of the flask, a bottom-board fitting within the flask is 
placed on top of the mold and the whole contrivance elevated 
against the yoke by means of the hand lever. This operation 
compresses the sand in the flask to the required density and 
the mold is then lowered to the original position, turned over, 
and the pattern drawn. It may be drawn either in the usual 
manner by means of a draw-nail which is rapped by the 
molder, or the pattern may be mounted in a vibrator frame as 
described later and vibrated by means of compressed air 
while it is being drawn. This latter method gives much the 
better molds. 

Power Squeezers. — Of much greater capacity and scope 
is the power squeezing machine shown in Fig. 130. This is 
a machine designed especially for molding light snap-flask 
work. It consists of a yoke carri'ed between two uprights, 
the yoke being adjustable to suit varying depths of flasks; 
a power cylinder for elevating the table of the machine on 
which the mold-board and the flask are mounted ; a lever for 
controlling the admission of air to the power cylinder, and a 
connection for operating the vibrator by compressed air. 
The yoke in the type of machine illustrated is mounted on 
trunnions enabling it to be swung back out of the way for 
placing and removing the flasks and the molds on the table. 
The patterns are usually mounted in vibrator frames or on 
match-plates to render the operation of drawing them easy 
and accurate. Machines of this character require about four 
cubic feet of free air per minute for their operation. 

The operation of making the mold on this machine with 



1 86 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

the patterns mounted on a vibrator frame is as follows: A hard- 
sand match is formed, on which patterns mounted in a vibrator 
frame are set. This match is placed on the table of the 
machine and the drag portion of the flask set in position and 
sand riddled over the pattern until the latter is covered. 
Sand is then shoveled in until the flask is filled, the excess 
sand being struck off with the bottom-board, which is next 
placed over the flask and the yoke of the machine is drawn 
forward to its vertical position. Air is then admitted to the 
power cylinder and the table elevated, thus squeezing the 
sand in the flask against the yoke. The air is exhausted from 
the cylinder and the mold lowered to its original position, 
the half-flask pattern and hard-sand match then being rolled 
over. The match is next removed, after which parting sand 
is shaken on the mold and the cope half of the flask put in 
place, filled with sand, and squeezed in the same manner as 
the drag. This completes the ramming operations and the 
sprue is cut with a brass tube used as a sprue cutter. 

The vibrator is now started and the molder grasping the 
cope by its handles lifts it from the drag. The snap flasks 
used with these machines have accurately fitted pins of con- 
siderable length which act as guides when the pattern is drawn, 
the vibrator frames or match-plates having ears which fit 
closely to these pins, thus being guided vertically upward 
from the mold. After the cope has been lifted off and set aside, 
the vibrator is once more started and the pattern is drawn by 
lifting the vibrator frame in its guides. The pattern being 
drawn, the mold may be closed, the snap flask removed, and 
the mold set on the floor ready for pouring. 

To make hard-sand match to use with the vibrator frame, 
the latter is put in the cope flask and rammed up. The part- 
ing is made in green sand and lycopodium is dusted on the 
parting between the green sand and the preparation forming 
the match. The match frame which is beveled to hold the 
match in place is set over the pattern and clamped firmly so 
that it cannot move during the ramming operation. The 
portion of the pattern projecting into the frame is rammed 



MOLDING MACHINES 



187 




Fig. 130. — Power Squeezer Molding Machine. 



l88 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

up exactly as would be done for bench molding, with sand 
made up of fifteen pounds of new burnt molding sand, riddled 
through a No. 30 sieve, into which has been kneaded a mix- 
ture of one quart of boiled linseed oil and four ounces of 
litharge. The match and the green-sand half-mold are rolled 
over and the cope taken off. The pattern is drawn and any 
parts of the match which may have broken in drawing are 
mended, after which the match is dried in a warm place for 
about twelve hours when it may be coated with thin shellac. 

Instead of using a hard-sand match, aluminum match-plates, 
with the patterns cast one-half on either side of the plate, 
may be used, especially if the patterns have an irregular part- 
ing and exceptionally good castings are required. The ad- 
vantage of these aluminum match-plates is that the whole mold 
may be squeezed at one operation and, furthermore, there is 
no possibility of the cope and drag shifting in relation to one 
another. To make an aluminum match-plate, a mold of the 
patterns is made in a flask large enough to accommodate the 
size of plate necessary. Master patterns should be used which 
have been made with the proper allowance for shrinkage and 
finish. Great care should be taken in making this mold in 
order to avoid any unnecessary finishing in the plate. Strips 
of wood the thickness of the plate required are placed on the 
parting of the drag before the mold is closed and a false part- 
ing of sand built up to the level of these strips. The strips 
are then removed, the mold is closed and poured, after which 
the plate may be finished with a wire brush or scraper. After 
attaching suitable handles and guides to the ends, the plate is 
ready for use. 

To make a mold by means of this plate, the flask is put 
together on the table of the machine with the plate between 
the two halves, the drag side being uppermost. Parting 
sand is dusted on the plate and the drag filled with sand, the 
first portion being riddled in until the patterns are covered. 
The bottom-board, being used first to strike off excess sand, is 
placed in position, after which the flask is rolled over, the cope 
filled with sand, and the mold squeezed. The cope is then 



MOLDING MACHINES 1 89 

lifted off, the vibrator being used, after which the pattern 
plate is also lifted. The sprues having been cut before lifting 
the cope, the mold may now be closed ready for pouring. 

Instead of the two methods above described, paraffine 
boards may be used for mounting the pattern where there are 
not a great number of molds to be made from one set of pat- 
terns. They are especially desirable in fiat-back work or for 
split-pattern work. The paraffine board is usually made of 
oak and is boiled in paraffine for forty-eight hours to prevent 
it warping in contact with damp sand. It is mounted in a 
vibrator frame and the patterns fastened to it by means of 
wood screws, having first been located in position by means of 
dowel pins. Where castings are to be made from split-pat- 
terns in large quantities, a three-sixteenths inch steel plate 
may be used. The patterns are mounted one-half on each 
side of the plate and the entire mold is squeezed at one time 
as is the case with aluminum match-plates. In mounting the 
patterns, the corresponding halves should be finished together 
so that they will match at the parting. A hole should be 
drilled and slightly countersunk before the two halves are 
separated. After separation, one half should be laid in the 
desired position on the steel plate and used as a jig in drilling 
the latter. After the drilling is completed the corresponding 
half-patterns should be placed on the opposite side of the plate 
and the two parts riveted to the plate by means of a brass rod 
inserted through the drilled holes and riveted into the counter- 
sink. 

The illustration, Fig. 131, shows the method of suspending 
patterns in a vibrator frame. A carrier of sheet brass one- 
eighth inch in thickness is soldered or sweated to the pattern, 
being attached to the runners if possible. Carriers are then 
rigidly fastened to the vibrator frame by first inserting them in 
a slot in the frame and drilling two three-sixteenths-inch holes 
through both frame and carrier and fastening them together 
by means of a snugly fitting brass pin. The pattern is next 
placed in the vibrator frame and holes drilled in the carriers 
on the pattern. The carriers on the pattern and those in the 



IQO FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

frame come together, and the carriers in the frame are drilled 
to correspond with holes already drilled in the carriers on the 
pattern. The slot in the vibrator frame should then be filled 
with wax to prevent the mold from crumbling at the edges. 

The vibrator is simply a small compressed-air hammer 
striking a large number of blows of uniform intensity per 
minute, the head of this hammer being attached to the vibrator 
frame or match-plate to communicate the blows of the hammer 
to the pattern. The blows are such that the size of the mold 
is not enlarged to any extent, but they simply overcome the 
friction of the pattern against the sand, and enable the drawing 
of a pattern which has no draft. 

Split-Pattern Machines. — Fig. 132 illustrates a special 
type of molding machine adapted for split- pattern work. It 
is especially adapted to patterns which are symmetrical, in 
which case both cope and drag may be molded from one 
pattern plate containing a double set of half-patterns, those 
on one side of the mold in the cope matching those on the 
opposite side in the drag. In using this machine it is cus- 
tomary to make as many drag portions of the molds as may be 
required, placing them on the floor in position for pouring, after 
which the copes are formed and closed on the drags. If cores 
are required in the mold, they are, of course, set before the 
copes are m.ade. It will be observed that the machine is 
similar in appearance to the power squeezer described above. 
It is, however, provided with an arrangement for drawing the 
pattern either by hand or power and also either by raising 
the mold away from the pattern or by drawing the latter down 
through a stripping plate. 

To make a mold on this machine, the patterns, which are 
mounted on a steel plate, are set on the table of the machine, 
the flask placed around them, being accurately located by 
means of dowel pins on the machine, and it is filled with sand 
and squeezed in the usual manner. After squeezing, the mold 
is lowered to its original position and the vibrator started. 
The operator then presses down on a pattern-drawing lever, 
if a hand-draft machine, or admits air to the drawing cylinder. 



MOLDING MACHINES 



191 




Fig. 131. — I, Mounting Patterns in a Vibrator Frame; 2, Hard-Sand 
Match for Same Patterns; 3, Cope of Mold Made from these Patterns; 
4, Drag of Mold. 



192 FOUNORY PRACTICE 

if a power-drawing machine, which elevates the outer portion 
of the table on which the flask is carried clear of the patterns, 
when the half-mold may be removed from the machine and set 
on the floor. The operation of making copes and drags on 
this machine is similar, except that in the case of copes 
the location of the sprue is indicated by a button on the 
bottom board which marks a depression in the sand where the 
gate is to be cut by means of the sprue cutter. When used 
with a stripping plate, the patterns are drawn downward 
through the stripping plate, the mold remaining stationary. 

The illustration, Fig. 133, shows the method of stooling 
patterns molded on this type of machine where there are large 
bodies of hanging sand which would be liable to drop when the 
pattern is drawn. Such bodies are those forming the green- 
sand cores of the stufifing boxes in the illustration. A hole is 
cut in the pattern plate the exact size of the green-sand core 
or through the pattern and pattern plate according to the 
requirements of the case. A stool, made usually of cold-rolled 
steel and of the exact size of the core, is attached "to a stool 
plate underneath and in exact alignment with the holes in the 
pattern plate. When the mold is elevated to draw the pattern 
the steel plate rises with the tables of the machine and the 
stools support the hanging green-sand cores as shown until 
they are entirely clear of the pattern. 

The mounting of the two halves of a symmetrical pattern 
for use in a split-pattern machine is a job requiring considerable 
care and great accuracy. The recommended method is the 
use of a transfer plate. The first operation is to make a 
pattern plate for the machine and drill in it two dowel holes 
located on the center line of the plate. The halves of the 
various patterns are doweled together before finishing, after 
which they are numbered and separated. The halves without 
dowel pins are arranged on one side of the pattern plate and 
used as jigs to drill that side of the plate. A transfer plate 
somewhat wider than half the width of the pattern plate is 
next made by first drilling holes to match the center-line holes 
of the pattern plate. Transfer and pattern plates are now 



MOLDING MACHINES 



193 




Fig. 132. — Split-pattern Molding Machine. 



194 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



fastened together, being located with reference to each other 
by means of dowel pins in the center-Hne holes. Using the 
pattern plate as a jig, holes are drilled in the transfer plate 
to correspond with those drilled in the pattern plate, after 
which the transfer plate is turned over, not around, so that 
what was its upper surface is now its lower one and it is once 




Fig. 133. — Stooling Patterns on a Split-pattern Machine. 



more placed on the pattern plate, the dowels inserted in the 
center-line holes, and it is used as a jig to drill the holes in the 
undrilled side of the pattern plate. The two sets of holes in 
the pattern plate will thus be symmetrical around the center 
line, and when the half-patterns are doweled to this plate 
molds made from them will match perfectly. 

Jarring Machines. — For large deep work in which the 
ramming time is of considerable importance, or for large cores, 
the jarring machine is of especial importance. This machine 



MOLDING MACHINES 1 95 

requires heavy flasks and large quantities of sand. It consists 
essentially of a table of massive construction which may be 
elevated any desired distance by means of air pressure and 
then suddenly dropped. The pattern, flask and sand are 
carried on this table, which when it is dropped falls more 
rapidly than do the former. The inertia of the sand and 
flask striking the table after the latter has come to rest causes 
the sand to be firmly packed in the mold. The density to 
which the sand can be packed varies with the length of drop 
and the efftciency of the machine increases with the drop and 
decreases with the dead weight handled over and above the 
weight of the sand. The machine, to secure best results, must 
be solidly constructed in the table, and in operation there must 
be no movement between the pattern, sand, and flask which 
will tend to pull the sand apart or to fracture the sand into 
various layers. Badly fitted pattern boards or patterns which 
are too light for their work, flasks which are crooked, or a light 
table on the machine will tend to cause such fractures. In 
ramming a mold on this type of machine it is only necessary 
to place the pattern in position, set the flask around it, riddle 
sand over the pattern, and open the air valve. After the 
table has been given a sufficient number of strokes to ram the 
sand to the proper density, the mold may be remo\'ed and 
finished by any of the approved methods. 

The latest development in connection with the jarring 
machine is the shockless jarring-machine, a cross section of 
which is shown in Fig. 134. This is a machine in which the 
impact of the mold on the table is absorbed within the machine 
itself instead of being transmitted to the foundation and thence 
to the surrounding floors and buildings. One great disad- 
vantage of the plain jarring machine is, that in ramming large 
molds, involving heavy masses of sand, vibrations are set up 
for a considerable distance around the machine and these 
vibrations are not only disagreeable to the workers but may 
also shake down the sand in completed molds, thus doing con- 
siderable damage. These vibrations in the case of the machine 
under consideration are eliminated by means 01 an anvil 



196 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



mounted in a cylinder and supported on long helical steel 
springs. The table is elevated by compressed air admitted 
to the jarring cylinder to raise the table. At a predetermined 
point in the table movement, the air is automatically cut off, 
and expanding, raises the table still further. The air from the 
jarring cylinder exhausts into the anvil cylinder and the jarring 
table falls by gravity. At the same time, the anvil being re- 




m W/////////////////////////////M//////////////// 

Fig. 134. — Shockless Jarring Machine Set Up in Pit. 



lieved of a considerable portion of its load, is thrown upward 
by its supporting springs to meet the falling table. The 
velocity with which it rises is increased by the air expanded 
from the jarring cylinder into the anvil cylinder. The anvil 
and the table are brought to rest by their impact upon each 
other, giving great ramming effect upon the sand but without 
giving vibration to the surrounding floors, the vibrations being 
absorbed by the springs and air under the anvil. Machines 



MOLDING MACHINES 



197 



of this character are built to ram molds weighing as much 
as 50,000 pounds. 

Roll-over Machines. — A roll-over machine in which the 
pattern, flask, and mold are rolled over and the pattern drawn 
by hand is shown in Fig. 135. The great advantage of the 
roll-over machine is that it is portable and follows up the sand 
pile as it is consumed, leaving behind it completed molds as is 




Fig. 135. — Plain Hand Roll-over Machine. 



done in hand molding. It is especially valuable for making 
intricate molds from straight patterns with little or no draft, 
and avoids entirely any patching or finishing of molds. A 
typical pattern molded on a roll-over machine is a grate-bar 
pattern forming about one hundred and fifty deep green-sand 
cores. This would be a most difficult mold to make and draw 
by hand and the time required for finishing would be no small 
item. However, with the roll-over machine, patching and fin- 
ishing of the mold is the exception and the output of such a ma- 
chine on work of this character far exceeds that of hand molding. 
The machine consists essentially of a frame on which the 
mold-board with the patterns is attached. This frame is 
carried on trunnions, which in turn are supported on sliding 



198 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

frames mounted on accurately machined guides. The frame 
can be revolved about these trunnions through a half-circle in 
order to roll the mold over and bring it in position for drawing 
the pattern. This latter operation is accomplished by means 
of a lifting lever which raises the frame with the mold-board 
and pattern attached vertically upward, it being guided by 
the sliding frames working on the guides before mentioned, 
thus enabling parallel patterns to be drawn without the aid 
of draft. Should by any chance any portion of the mold 
become broken in drawing the pattern, the guides enable the 
patterns to be replaced in the mold with exactness, after which 
the mold can be mended much more quickly and satisfactorily 
than otherwise. 

In molding with this machine, the pattern board is placed 
on the hinged frame and clamped to it. The flask is then 
placed on the pattern board, its location being determined by 
pins on the latter. The flask is then filled and rammed as 
in floor or bench molding and the mold struck off. The bottom- 
board is then next rubbed on the mold and clamped to the 
pattern board. The hinged frame is then rolled over until the 
bottom-board rests on the equalizing cradle. The pattern- 
drawing leVer i& next drawn down until the stops on the 
hinged frame engage the stops on the frame of the machine 
and the flask is allowed to settle by gravity on the cradle. 
The clamps are then released and the vibrator started, after 
which the pattern is drawn by lifting the pattern board clear of 
the mold by means of a pattern-drawing lever, the frame and 
pattern board being guided vertically upward by means of a 
guide on the machine. As soon as the pattern is clear of the 
mold, it is rolled back to its original position, a new flask placed 
on the machine, and the operations repeated. An advantage of 
this type of machine is that it can be kept at work continuously, 
as the completed mold can be removed by a couple of laborers 
at their convenience while the molder is ramming up the new 
mold. The occupation of the cradle by the completed mold 
does not interfere in the least with the operations of the molder 
in making a second mold. 



MOLDING MACHINES 



199 



When the molds to be made on this type of machme 
become of large size, it is beyond the ability of the molder and 
his helper to roll over the heavy flask full of sand by hand, or 
to withdraw the pattern by hand. In such cases a power 
cylinder operated by compressed air is added, as shown in 




Fig. 136.— Power Roll-over and Power Draft Molding Machine. 

Fig. 136, to perform these operations. Otherwise the making 
of the molds is carried on exactly as before. A still further 
development of this type of machine is the addition of a 
jarring machine to the power roll-over attachment, for ram- 
ming the molds. This combination givec a machine of the 



200 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



TABLE I — Description 



OF Operation Molding 
(Part of Plow) 



Drag and Cope 



Flask 13" X 17". 4" Drag, 45" Cope. Hand Molding at Bench 



Detailed Instructions 



I 

2 

3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

ID 
II 
12 

13 
14 
15 
16 

17 

18 

19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 

33 



Preparation 

Pick up hard-sand match and put on bench 

Pick up pattern and put on hard-sand match 

Pick up drag and put in place 

Shake parting on pattern 

Pick up riddle and put on flask 

Fill riddle with sand, one shovel full 

Riddle sand on pattern 

Fill drag with sand (three shovels full) 

Peen around edge of drag and butt ram some. 

(With shovel butt.) 

Put two more shovels full in drag 

Butt ram 

Strike mold off with bar, 5^Xl X36 in. long 

Pick up bottom-board and place in position 

Roll mold over 

Remove hard-sand match 

Blow sand off mold (with bellows) 

Repeat operations 6 to 10 inclusive for cope 

Fill cope with sand, 4 shovels full 

Repeat operations 12 to 15 inclusive for cope 

Mark sprue hole. (With cope board.) 

Cut sprue hole 

Rap pattern. Spike going through sprue hole into 

pattern 

Round sprue 

Remove cope mold 

Blow pattern off with bellows 

Draw pattern from mold by hand 

Patch up mold. (With slick.) 

Close mold 

Remove snap flask from mold 

Remove mold to floor 

Number four riddle 

Weight of shovel 5 lbs. 

Weight of sand 16 lbs. 

Total weight 21 lbs. 



Element Time 

per Piece Hand 

Mold 





04 





04 





07 





08 





02 






04 
08 





08 





10 





06 





30 





10 





08 





08 





07 





07 





29 





10 





56 





05 





12 





49 





10 





09 





09 





45 





30 





12 





07 


0. 


07 


4 


20 













MOLDING MACHINES 



201 



TABLE II — Description of Operation Molding Drag and Cope 
(Part of Plow) 

Flask 13" X 17". 4" Drag, 4 J" Cope. Power Squeezer 



Detailed Instructions 



Preparation 

Pick up hard-sand match and put on table of 

machine 

Pick up pattern and put on hard-sand match 

Pick up drag and put in place 

Shake parting on pattern 

Pick up riddle and put on flask 

Fill riddle with sand 

Riddle sand on pattern 

Fill up drag (three shovels full.) 

Peen around edge of drag. (Butt of shovel.) . . . . 

Strike off with board and put in place 

Bring yoke over and squeeze (sixty lbs. pressure.). . . 

Roll mold over. (On table.) 

Start vibrator and remove hard-sand match 

Blowoff with compressed air 

Repeat operations from 7 to 1 1 inclusive for cope. . 

Fill up cope, four shovels 

Repeat operations 13, 14, and 15 for cope 

Remove cope board , . . . . 

Blow mold off with compressed air 

Cut sprue hole 

Start vibrator and lift cope 

Blow mold off with compressed air 

Start vibrator and draw pattern 

Close mold 

Remove flask 

Stop off carrier 

Place mold on floor 

Number four riddle 

Weight of shovel 5 lbs. 

Weight of sand 16 lbs. 

Total weight 21 lbs. 



Element Time 

per Piece Mach. 

Mold. 



0.04 
0.04 
0.07 
0.08 
0.02 
0.04 
0.08 
0.08 
0.05 
0.07 
0.06 
0.08 
0.03 
0.05 
0.29 
0. ID 
0.18 
0.03 
0.05 
0.08 
O. 12 
0.05 

o. 10 

O. 12 
0.07 
0.06 
0.06 
2.10 



202 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

highest efficiency and one which saves in not only the ramming 
but the finishing time, and which has an output far in excess of 
anything possible by other means. It, however, is adapted 
for situations where there are a vast number of heavy and 
complicated castings of similar size and shape to be made. 

When to Use a Molding Machine. — The question of 
whether or not the use of a molding machine would pay can 
be decided accurately only by means of a detailed time-study 
of the various operations of making a mold by hand and by 
machine. This time-study would show the amount of time 
saved by the machine and it is then simply a question of 
whether there are sufficient castings to be made from a given 
pattern, the total saving on which would aggregate a sufficient 
amount of time to warrant the expense of the machine. It 
should be borne in mind in this connection that a molding 
machine can usually be run by lower-priced men than are 
required for making molds by hand. An instance of a time- 
study on hand molding and on machine molding of the same 
pattern was given by Mr. Wilfred Lewis, in a lecture before 
the Franklin Institute in April, 191 1. With his permission, 
the author presents these time-studies together with Mr, 
Lewis's comments thereon. (See pages 200-201). 

In the tables the time given for each individual operation 
is in hundredths of a minute. By carefully timing, with a 
stop-watch, each operation of making a mold, it can quickly 
be observed what motions are unnecessary and by comparing 
the time study of the hand mold with that of the machine 
mold, it is easily determined the amount that can be saved 
by one method as compared with the other. In the two tables 
presented, the time for molding a part of a plow in a flask 13 by 
17 inches, with a 4-inch drag and a 4>^-inch cope, both by 
machine and by hand is given. Comparing these two tables, 
it will be seen that items 4 to 1 1 [the item numbers here 
refer to the table of hand molding] must be done in the same 
way and will consume the same amount of time, 0.05 minute, 
whether the mold is made by hand or by machine. Item 12 
must be done more thoroughly and consumes more time in 



MOLDING MACHINES 203 

hand molding, and item 13 is not required at all in machine 
molding. Item 14, butt-ramming, 0.30 minute, is equivalent 
to squeezing by power but consumes five times the time. 
Item 15, striking off, is performed after ramming, and requires 
0.03 minute longer than striking off the unrammed sand on 
the machine. Item 16 is not required in machine molding. 
Item 17, rolling over, is the same in both cases. Items 18 and 
19 require 0.14 minute, compared with 0.08 min'ute when 
compressed air is used on the power machine. Items 20 and 21 
are identical for hand or power molding. Item 22 requires 
0.56 minute against 0.18 by power. Item 23 is not performed 
by power as a separate operation and item 24 is the same in 
both cases. Rapping the pattern, item 25, requires 0.48 
minute as compared to 0.12 minute, consumed in starting the 
vibrator and lifting the cope at one operation on the machine. 
Item 26 is the same in both cases. Item 27, removing the 
cope requires 0.09 minute. Item 28, to blow off the pattern, 
requires 0.04 minute longer with bellows than with compressed 
air and drawing the pattern, item 29, requires 0.35 minute 
longer in hand molding than by machine. Item 30, patching, 
requiring 0.30 minute is not called for in machine work. 
Items 31, 32, and 33 are the same in both cases, and in mold- 
ing with the machine an additional operation, stopping off 
the carriers, 0.06 minute is required. The total time required 
for making a mold by hand is 4.20 minutes, whereas the 
machine will do it in 2.10 minutes or exactly one-half the 
time. Should a vibrator be used on the patterns in making 
the mold by hand, the total molding time will be consider- 
ably reduced, but still enough in excess of the machine time 
to warrant the installation of machines, provided the cast- 
ing is to be made in sufficient quantities. Similar studies 
to the above, if made on any class of molding, will soon tell 
the best method of work. Time studies may also be applied 
to two different methods of hand molding or two different 
methods of machine molding to ascertain which is the most 
economical. 



CHAPTER XX 

MENDING BROKEN CASTINGS 

Castings are frequently broken in service or they may have 
some portion defective when made. Unless the break is a 
very bad one or the defective portion of wide extent it is 
possible to repair the casting by one of a number of methods. 
Up to comparatively recent times the only method of making 
such repairs was by means of the process of burning. More 
recently, however, the Thermit process and the oxy-acetylene 
flame have placed in the hands of the foundrymen new tools 
of high efficiency. 

The process of burning a casting is shown in Fig. 137. 
Assume that a casting with a small projecting arm D has had 
this arm broken as shown. The two parts are bedded into 
the floor and a parting made exactly as would be done 
in ramming up a pattern. A shallow cope is set over the 
broken casting and its position fixed by means of stakes, after 
which parting sand is riddled on the joint and two gate-sticks 
set, one a little longer than the other, on either side of the break. 
The cope is then rammed up and lifted off and the small 
broken part rapped and drawn from the mold. The broken 
end is then ground off for a distance of about one-quarter 
inch and the surface nicked all over with a chisel. This piece 
is now returned to its place in the mold and a sprue is cut 
between the two vertical gates leading to the space between 
the broken ends of the arm. The cope is then replaced, the 
gate-sticks withdrawn, and by means of snap-flask weights A, 
a deep pouring basin is built above the smaller gate B and an 
outflow H is built over the larger gate G, this outflow leading 
to a large basin /. 

The theory of burning broken castings involves the flowing 
through the break of very hot iron which will eventually fuse 

204 



MENDING BROKEN CASTINGS 



205 



Weights f^ 




13i?paEri&g;an9 gates cut 




Broken casting 



Cope closed on 





Ready foiLburning 



Fig. 137. — Mending a Broken Casting by Burning. 



206 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

the ends of the broken casting, and then allowing the casting 
to cool together with the iron which has been poured through 
the break. The broken parts and the fresh iron will then 
be found to have solidified in a firm homogeneous mass. The 
surplus iron around the break is chipped off and the repaired 
.casting is as serviceable as one that has never been broken. 
The inflowing gate is made considerably smaller than the out- 
flow in order that the iron may flow freely through the break. 
Should it be retarded in its flow it is liable to chill and fail 
to melt the ends of the broken casting, in which case a hard 
glazed surface would be formed which would be more difficult 
of repair than the original break. It is also important that 
the pouring basin be at a considerable elevation above the 
outflow gate in order that there may be a high head to cause 
the iron to flow rapidly through the break. Care must be 
taken that the ends of the break are given a sharp jagged 
surface as the molten iron will not fuse a smooth surface so 
readily. 

If the casting is of such shape that it cannot be readily 
removed from the sand as in the case just described, grooves 
may be cut through the break by a milling machine or chisel 
and after the sprues are cut the sand is carefully blown from 
these grooves and the cope replaced and the operation pro- 
ceeds as before. If a portion of a casting of cylindrical section 
is lost, it can be repaired by bedding the casting in the sand and 
making a cylindrical mold above the broken portion, the 
mold being made of sufficient depth to allow for a shrink- 
head, after which a sufficient quantity of iron is allowed to 
flow through the mold to fuse the end of the casting and it is 
then permitted to solidify. 

It is not possible to repair breaks of every character by 
this method. The burning on of a corner or an arm is usually 
accomplished with but little trouble. To burn metal into a 
hole in the centre of a casting, particularly if the latter be thin, 
is a more difficult proposition. The actual burning operation 
is accomplished easily, but trouble is encountered when the 
repair cools. The unequal shrinkage of the liquid metal and 



MENDING BROKEN CASTINGS 20/ 

the moderately heated soUd casting surrounding it renders it 
difficult to make a perfect joint between the two parts and 
the new metal frequently pulls away from the old. This 
trouble may sometimes be remedied by preheating the metal 
of the casting up to about 400° Fahr. before burning, and 
placing the repaired casting in an oven of this temperature 
as soon as the burn is made, and cooling it gradually. 

Another method of burning is to surround the break with 
dry-sand cores about an inch above the casting, an outlet being 
cut in the core so that hot iron can be poured directly on the 
break and flow off over a notch cut in the core. From one 
hundred to one hundred and fifty pounds of very hot iron is 
poured in a thin stream on the break and around the place to 
be mended. By means of a small rod the action of the iron is 
ascertained. This method is usually practiced on flat surfaces. 

The iron used in repairing breaks in this manner must 
be extremely soft, especially if the casting is to be ma- 
chined later. The higher the combined carbon in the iron 
the harder will be the burned spot. The iron in the cast- 
ing itself affects to some extent the quality of the iron in 
the break. 

Thermit Welding. — The introduction of the Thermit 
process has rendered possible the repair of broken castings 
which was impossible under the older method. Thermit is a 
mixture of fine aluminum filings and iron oxide, which, when 
set on fire, gives a temperature of about 5,000° Fahr., the alumi- 
num uniting with the oxygen of the iron oxide. There is thus 
formed a very pure iron and a slag consisting principally of 
aluminum oxide. If this is allowed to flow on a casting the 
intense heat will melt the casting wherever the mixture comes 
in contact with it and, on cooling, the iron from the Thermit 
will unite with the iron of the casting and form a homogeneous 
uniform mass. It is this feature that is taken advantage of 
in the making of repairs to broken castings by means of 
Thermit. A typical repair by this method is that of a loco- 
motive driving-wheel with broken spokes. The wheel is laid 
on the floor and the broken parts are placed as nearly in their 



208 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

original position as possible with a small space left between 
them at the break. A mold is formed around the break, the 
parts of which are heated with an oil burner. After they have 
been brought to the proper temperature the funnel containing 
Thermit is placed over the part to be repaired, a steel plug 
being inserted at the bottom of the funnel. A special ignition 
powder is set on top of the Thermit and lighted and after 
the combustion of the Thermit is complete the plug is pushed 
up into the funnel and the iron which has been formed by the 
combustion of the Thermit is allowed to flow down over the 
break, the slag flowing into a 'basin made to receive it. Repairs 
made by this method are extremely strong, frequently being 
of greater strength than the original casting.^ 

Oxy-acetylene Welding. — Welding by means of the 
oxy-acetylene flame has been successfully used in the repair 
of many difficult castings. Acetylene gas when burned in a 
blow-pipe with oxygen gives the highest temperature known 
excepting the electric arc, approximating 6,000° Fahr. This 
flame can be regulated so that it may be drawn down to a fine 
point which localizes the heat generated by it to a very limited 
area. It is this fact that makes possible its use in the repair 
of castings. The broken parts are brought together and a 
groove is chipped along the break, the sides of the grooves hav- 
ing an angle of about forty-five degrees from the vertical. The 
oxy-acetylene flame is played on this groove until the metal in 
it is fused. A soft iron wire is then melted by placing its end 
in the groove and allowing the flame from the oxy-acetylene 
torch to play upon it, when it unites with the metal fused from 
the casting. On cooling the break will be found to be repaired 
quite perfectly and the strength of the repaired joint will 
approximate from 85 to 100 per cent, of the strength of the 
original casting. Considerable care is required in the manipu- 
lation of this process and detailed directions are given for the 
use of the apparatus by the makers. These directions would 

The use of Thermit is covered by United States and foreign 
patents and complete directions for its use should be obtained from the 
owners of the American rights, the Goldschmitt Thermit Co., New York. 



MENDING BROKEN CASTINGS 209 

be out of place here and the reader is advised to consult with 
the manufacturers of this apparatus before attempting to 
make use of this process. The leading manufacturers of this 
apparatus are the Davis-Bournonville Company, New York, 
The Nelson Goodyear Company, New York, and the Linde 
Air Products Company, Buffalo. 
14 



CHAPTER XXI 

MOLDING TOOLS 

The tools most commonly used by molders are shown in 
the illustrations Figs. 138 and 139. 

The shovel is used for cutting up the sand heap and for 
filling the flask. 

The water pail is used for supplying water to wet down the 
sand for tempering and also for wetting the swab or bosh on 
the floor molding. 

The riddle is a sieve used for sifting the sand on to the 
surfaces of the pattern when starting a mold. The size of the 
riddle is given by the number of meshes to the running inch. 
Thus, a No. 8 riddle has eight meshes to the inch and a No. 
4 riddle, four. The particular riddle used depends on the 
character of casting to be made, the finer castings with con- 
siderable detail on their surface requiring finer sand and, there- 
fore, a finer riddle. 

Rammers, used for pounding the sand around the pattern 
in the flask, are, for the heavier class of castings, made of iron, 
although sometimes they are made with a wooden handle 
with a cast-iron butt at one end and a cast-iron peen at the 
other end. The small rammers used in bench work are usually 
made of maple, although sometimes they are made of cast-iron. 

The strike is used to scrape the extra sand not wanted from 
the top of the cope or drag and also for leveling the loose sand 
placed in the bottom of the larger drags before placing the 
bottom-board. It is usually a thin strip of bar iron, two to 
three inches wide. 

Clamps, used for holding together the cope and drag of 
the completed mold or for clamping together the mold-board 
and the bottom-board on either side of the drag when the latter 
is rolled over, are of many styles and sizes. They are shown 



MOLDING TOOLS 211 

at 6, 7, and 8 of Fig. 138. They are made of either wrought- 
iron or cast-iron and are wedged on the flask by means of the 
wooden wedges 10. The wedges for side-floor use are usually 
of soft wood and for the heavier work either of hard wood or 
iron. 

The bellows, 11, are used to blow parting sand from the 
pattern and also to blow loose sand and dirt from the mold. 

Gaggers are L-shaped pieces of wrought or cast iron. They 
are shown at 12, Fig. 138, and are used to hold up deep pockets 
of sand in the mold, which, if unsupported, would fall of their 
own weight. The gaggers are clay-washed and the friction 
of them against the body of the sand is sufficient to prevent 
them falling on account of the weight of sand on the pocket 
they are supporting. 

Soldiers are sticks of wood of varying thickness, used for 
much the same purposes as gaggers. In certain places, they 
will hold up sand better than gaggers and can be used in 
pockets in many places where gaggers would be impracticable. 

Trowels, shown at 14, 15, and 16, Fig. 139, are of many 
different styles and sizes to suit the individual taste of the 
molder. In floor work, the trowel is used for making the joint 
on a mold, and it is used in all classes of work for finishing, 
smoothing, and slicking the flat surfaces of the mold. 

Vent-wires are shown at 17, 18, and 19, being steel wires, 
upset on one end and having a handle on the other. They 
are used to perforate the mold to permit the escape of gases 
from it when the casting is poured. They are also used to 
form holes for gas to escape from cores in the mold to the 
outside of the mold. 

The hosh or swab, 20, is made of hemp, teazled out to a 
point at one end and bound with twine at the other to hold it 
together. It is used to flow a small amount of water around 
the edge of the pattern in the sand, before the pattern is 
rapped for drawing from the mold. The bosh will hold con- 
siderable water and the amount which it delivers to the sand 
can be regulated by the pressure the molder applies when 
squeezing it. Boshes are also used to apply wet blacking to 



212 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

dry-sand molds when they are to be blacked green, that is 
before the mold is dried, and the blacking slicked. 

The soft brush, 21, is used to brush off the pattern and 
the joint of the mold. The hard brush, 51, is used to spread 
beeswax or tallow on metal patterns and to brush and clean 
out between the teeth of gears and similar patterns. 

The rapping and clamping bar, 22, is usually a bar of steel 
from three-quarters to seven-eighths inch diameter and two 
feet long. It is pointed at one end to enter rapping 
plates in a pattern and is flattened and turned up at the 
other end for convenience in tightening clamps on a flask. 
For rapping large patterns, the size of the bar is of course 
increased. 

Draw-screws, 23, 24, and 25, are eye-bolts threaded on one 
end. They are used for drawing large wooden patterns from 
the sand, being screwed into holes, left for that purpose, in 
the pattern. They are also used for drawing metal patterns. 

The draw-spike, 26 and 2^, is a piece of steel, sharpened at 
one end for driving into a wooden pattern to rap and draw it. 
It is principally used in bench work for drawing small patterns. 

Lifters, 28, 29, 30, are used for clearing of loose sand deep 
places in molds. They are of different lengths and sizes, one 
end being turned at right angles to the stem, this portion 
being termed the heel. The straight, flattened portion is 
known as the blade. The blade and heel are also used to 
slick the sides of the mold where they cannot be reached in 
finishing by the trowel or slicker. The heel is also used to 
slick the bottom of deep places after the sand has been re- 
moved. 

Slickers, 31, 32, and 33, are formed with blades of varying 
widths, with the other end of the tool turned to form a heel 
somewhat similar to the lifter. It is used for lifting loose sand 
in shallow parts of the mold and for slicking down when patch- 
ing broken edges. The blade is used to build sand on, to 
form corners to the proper shape. This tool is used more by 
molders than any other except the trowel. 

Corner tools, 34, are used to slick the corners of molds 



MOLDING TOOLS 2I3 

where a slicker or the heel of a lifter will not do satisfactory 
work. Corner tools are made with different angles for special 
work, being usually formed of cast-iron by the molders and 
polished. 

Bead slickers, 35 and 36, are of special shapes and sizes. 
They are used to slick what are termed beads or hollow places 
in a mold. They are usually made of steel or composition 
metal and seldom of cast-iron. 

Flange tools, 37, are used for slicking flanges on pipes or 
cylinders. The rounded ends of the tiange tool are made of 
different radii for use on different flanges. They are usually 
made of steel. 

Spoon slickers, 38 and 39, have spoon-shaped ends and 
are used to slick rounding surfaces in a mold. They are 
usually made with one end larger than the other. 

Pipe tools, 40 and 41, are used to slick pipe molds in the 
plain rounding part. Some are made as in the illustration 
and others are formed more in the shape of a spoon. They are 
also used on any cylindrical work for facing the interior of 
cylindrical surfaces. They are usually of cast-iron with a 
handle set vertically in the center. 

Hub tools, 43, 44, 45, and 46, are used in any cylindrical 
portion of a mold, such as hubs of pulleys or other portions 
which are too small to permit use of a pipe slicker. One end 
is turned at right angles for use in lifting sand from the bottom 
of the hub in order to slick it. The back of the heel being 
rounded, the hub tool can be brought in close to the edge of 
the mold for finishing. They are made of steel or composi- 
tion metal. 

The double-ender , 47, comprises a slicker at one end and a 
spoon slicker at the other. They are usually made to the 
molder's order and are used by bench molders on small molds. 

The cameV s-hair brush, 48, is used to brush dry blacking 
on the face of the mold. 

The wooden gate-pin, 49, sometimes called a sprue, is a 
round tapered pin used to form the gate extending through the 
cope into which iron is poured into the mold. They are of 



214 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 




Fig. 138. — Molder's Tools. 

I, Shovel; 2, riddle or sieve; ,5, iron rammer; 4, tool box; 5, strike; 6-8, clamps; o, hand 
rammer; 10. wedges; 11, bellows; 12, Haggers- 13, soldiers; 55-56, calipers; 57. cutting 
nippers; 58, monkey wrench. 




Fig. 139. — Molder's Tools. 

14-16, "frowels; 17-19, vent-wires; 20, bosh or swab; 21, soft brush; 22, rapping or 
clamping bar; 23-25, draw-screws; 26-27, draw-spikes, 28-30, lifters; 31-3.', slickers; 
34, corner tool; 35-36, bead slickers; 37, flange tool; 38-39, spoon slickers; 40-41, pipe tools; 
42, button tool; 43-46, hub took; 47, double-ender: 4S. camel's-hair brush; 49, wooden 
gate-pin; 50, rapping iron; 51. hard brush; 52. spring d/awnail. 53, 54- sprue cu ters. 



2l6 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

the size required by the class of mold, and occasionally may 
be square or octagonal in cross section. 

The rapping iron, 50, is used to rap or jar gated patterns 
in the mold. It is commonly used in connection with the rap- 
ping bar, 22, which is entered through the hole in the cope 
made by the gate-stick. The bar entering a hole in the striking 
gate on which the patterns are soldered, it is struck with the 
rapping iron to jar the pattern, at the same time in both the 
cope and drag. 

The spring draw-nail, 52, is used for drawing small patterns. 
It consists of two pointed rods, joined together with a spring, 
which forces the points outward. It is used for drawing small 
patterns by inserting the points of the two rods in a hole in the 
pattern, the points being pressed together; on releasing the 
points, they spread apart and give sufificient grip on the pattern 
to draw it. 

The gate or sprue cutter, 53, is a piece of sheet brass bent 
to a semicircle on one edge. It is used to cut the channel in 
the drag from the hole left by the gate-stick to the mold. 

Another form of sprue cutter is shown at 54, being a 
cylindrical metal tube used to cut the gate in the cope when 
the gate-stick has not been used. 

Calipers are more used by the core-maker than the molder. 
The molder uses them to verify the sizes of cores in order to 
make the proper size of core-print and also to obtain the length 
of smaller cores. The calipers in this case are set at the 
proper length and the core filed to fit. This is important in 
dry-sand work, since, as there is no give to a dry-sand mold, it 
will be crushed if the core is too large when the mold is closed. 

Cutting nippers, 57, are used to cut the smaller wires in 
core-making to the desired length. 

The monkey wrench is used to screw down rod bolts to 
hold binders with which the mold is fastened and also to 
tighten bolts in iron flasks. 



CHAPTER XXII 

MOLDING SANDS 

Molding sand is a sand possessing those qualities which 
enable it to be tempered and formed to definite shapes which 
it will retain when molten metal is poured in it, and which has 
the requisite chemical composition to enable it to resist fusion 
from the heat of the molten metal. Molding sand must also 
have sufficient permeability to permit the free escape of gases 
from the mold while it is filling with metal, without scabbing 
or otherwise injuring the surface of the mold. The sand also 
should be capable of being retempered and used for successive 
molds without the addition of new sand to provide bond. 

Molding sand is found in large deposits in the United 
States in the states of New York, New Jersey, Ohio, Indiana, 
Illinois, Missouri, and Kentucky. It is also found in smaller 
deposits in Michigan, Wisconsin, Connecticut, and Massa- 
chusetts. The characteristics of the sands from these different 
localities vary and they are not all suited to every grade of 
work. Combinations or mixtures of sands from one locality 
with those from another, will often give a desired grade and 
quality of molding sand when none of the component sands is 
suitable. 

The principal requirements of a good molding sand are: 
resistance to fusion; bond; permeability and porosity. An 
excess of lime — one per cent or more — will lower the power of 
the sand to resist fusion. If present as a silicate, it will com- 
bine with the silica and alumina of the sand under the influence 
of the heat of the molten iron, and will vitrify and form a scale 
on the casting. Permeability, or ability to permit the passage 
through it of gases formed in the mold while filling with metal, 
is one of the most important qualities of molding sand. There 
is a difference between permeability and porosity. The 

217 



2l8 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

porosity of a sand is the ratio of voids or pore spaces to the 
total volume of the sand, while the permeability depends on 
the area of the passage ways through the sand formed by these 
voids. Air fills the pores in the mold, and this when heated 
during the pouring of the metal, expands. The sand must 
have sufficient cohesion or bond to resist the pressure due to 
this expansion, and it also must have sufficient permeability 
to permit the escape of the contained air and of the gases 
generated in pouring. The greater the ease with which the 
air and gases escape, the less need there is for a strong bond. 
In green sand, more or less water is contained in the mold 
which is converted into steam in casting, and this also must 
escape. If these various fluids cannot escape easily through 
the mold or core, blow holes are formed and the casting is 
injured. A molding sand, therefore, must not only have 
cohesion between its particles to withstand certain strains, 
but it must at the same time possess the desired permeability.^ 
The experiments of King^ show that the finer-grained 
sands, even when the grains are approximately the same size, 
have greater pore space than the coarser sands when both are 
equally tamped. The average pore space of seven samples 
of No. I GO quartz sand ^ was 36.6 per cent., while that of three 
samples of No. 20 sand was 33.9 per cent. The same experi- 
ments show that sharp, angular sands have a greater pore 
space than rounded sands of the same size, indicating ap- 
parently the greater difficulty of making angular grains pack 
well. It was also found that the smallest pore space was 
obtained when two sands of rounded grains, but of quite 
dissimilar diameters, were mixed in about equal proportions 
by weight. The theoretical minimum pore space of sand with 
spherical grains is 25.95 P^^ cent., and only once in these ex- 

^ Annual Report of the State Geologist of New Jersey, 1904, page 
199. Report on molding sands. 

^ Nineteenth Annual Report of the Director of the U. S. Geological 
Survey, II., pages 209-215. 

^Sand retained on a sieve with 100 meshes to the inch but passing 
an 80-mesh sieve. 



MOLDING SANDS 219 

periments did the pore space fall below this minimum. From 
these experiments, the conclusions can be drawn that (A) 
pore space can be reduced by tamping, but the theoretical 
minimum can be reached but rarely; {B) under equal treat- 
ment, mixed sands of different grain diameters give lower 
pore space than do sands of uniform grain, the degree of 
rounding being the same; (C) angular sands have more pore 
space than rounded sands, other things being equal; (D) the 
least pore space may be expected when the round grains are 
about equally divided between large and small with no in- 
termediate sizes. It is evident that the closer the packing 
of the grains, the less the permeability, and, other things being 
equal, coarse sands are more permeable than fine, and angular 
sands more so than rounded. 

Chemical analysis, while determining the amount of bond 
in the sand, and also its resistance to fusion, does not deter- 
mine whether or not a good casting can be produced with a 
certain sand. Microscopic tests are also necessary, as these 
will reveal the shapes of the grains of sand, whether the grains 
are flattened, rounded, or angular which in turn determines 
how closely the mold can be rammed and still permit the gases, 
generated in pouring, to escape. A sharp angular grain is of 
the utmost importance, since with this grain the sand can be 
firmly rammed around the pattern and yet give a porous and 
permeable mold. With a strong open sand, a poor molder 
will often make a better casting than will a good molder using 
a sand lacking in permeability. A molding sand with grains 
nearly round, while making a good mold, requires more atten- 
tion than the other. 

If heavy castings are to be made, the sand must withstand 
a high degree of heat for a considerable period and, to resist 
fusion, a sand containing more silica and less bond is required. 
The refractoriness of sand depends upon its silica content, but 
the bond decreases as the silica increases. When the sand avail- 
able for large castings is considered too close in texture to have 
sufficient permeability and refractoriness, silica sand or ground 
silica rock is sometimes added to open up the molding sand. 



220 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 






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221 



The table herewith has been derived from the reports of 
various State Geologists. It indicates the chemical composi- 
tion of various grades of molding sand together with the uses 
to which they are best adapted. 

Table II shows the analyses of molding sand from 
different parts of the United States. Of these Nos. i and 2 are 
stove-plate sands, while 3 and 4 are used for general work. 

TABLE II 





I 
Per Cent 


2 

Per Cent 


3 
Per Cent 


4 
Per Cent 


Silica 


79-36 
9-36 
3-18 
0.44 
0.27 
2.19 

1-54 
0.34 
2.02 
0.74 


79-38 
9-38 
3.98 
I .40 

0.54 
1.80 
1.04 
0.44 
2.50 
0.80 


84.40 
7-50 
2.52 
0.06 
0.21 
I .29 
0.65 
0.44 
1.49 
1.76 


85.04 
590 
3-18 
0.06 


Alumina 


Ferric oxide 


Lime 


Magnesia 


0. 14 
1.65 
0.83 
0.78 

1-57 

1 . II 


Potash 


Soda 


Titanic oxide 


Water 


Moisture 







The following analysis of a sand with an angular grain 
formation will prove a good sand for stove-plate work. For 
light bench castings, however, it should have more bond. 

TABLE III 

Per Cent 

Silica 80 . 98 

Alumina 9-50 

Oxide of iron 3 ■ 90 

Lime o . 60 



The following analyses of molding sands are from the joint 
report of B. H. Hamilton and H. B. Kummel, on "Molding 
Sands of New Jersey." 



222 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

TABLE IV 
Unused No. i Albany Sand 

Per Cent 

Silica (SiOz) 80. 88 

Alumina (AljOg).. . ) 

Iron oxide (FejOg) [ ^"^'^^ 

Lime (CaCOg) i . 32 

Combined water 2 . 54 

Specific gravity 2 . 65 

Pore space 43-3 

Tensile strength 4 . 31 lb. per sq. in, 

Pan, 80; clay adhering, 5.5; fineness, 95.00. 

Albany Stove-Plate Sand 

Pan, 77; clay adhering, i + ; fineness, 95; specific 
gravity, 2.65; pore space, 41.55 per cent. 

New Jersey Molding Sands 

I. Sand for brass molding and light malleable castings — 
pan, 84.5; clay adhering, 2.5; fineness, 95.2; pore space, 43 
per cent. 

II. Stove-plate sand — pan, 71.36; clay adhering, 0.565; 
fineness, 88.4; pore space, 37 per cent. 

III. General foundry work — pan, 11.5; clay adhering, 
3.0; fineness 72.2; pore space, 37 per cent. 

IV. Heavy castings — pan, 13.89; fineness, 72.2; specific 
gravity, 2.633; pore space, 37 per cent. 

V. Lumberton Loam No. II — pan, 44.42; clay adhering, 
10.27; fineness, 85; pore space, 47.4 per cent. 

Coxsackie (N. Y.) No. 2 Sand 

Pan, 52.52; clay adhering, 5.0; fineness, 83.9; pore space, 
33 per cent. 

The character of casting to be made governs the selection 
of the molding sand to be used. Small, thin castings for 



MOLDING SANDS 5^3 

ornamental work, having on their surfaces a series of Hnes, de- 
pressions, and projections, require a very fine-grained molding 
sand. A coarse sand, used in this connection, will not only 
refuse to reproduce the design but will leave rough surfaces 
and imperfect lines on small castings. For molding very 
fine castings in bronze, what is known as French sand is 
necessary. See analyses in Table I. 

In the United States a sand known as Windsor Locks 
(Conn.) is used in making castings for chandelier and similar 
fine composition work. A sand used for bronze, brass, or 
other composition castings is not subjected to as high a tem- 
perature as that used in iron casting, owing to the lower 
melting point of the composition metals, and, therefore, cast- 
ings may be permitted to reAiain in the mold until cooled. For 
brass and small iron castings, a grade of sand known as No. 
00 Albany sand is frequently used instead of Windsor Locks 
sand. Among these classes of castings are toys, shelf hard- 
ware of the lighter kind, small novelties, name-plates, and small 
gears. Sands of similar texture to these two are found in 
Kentucky, Ohio, and Indiana. 

For somewhat heavier castings, in general bench work. 
No. o Albany sand is used. The most commonly used sand 
in the Eastern States is No. i Albany sand. It may be used 
for nearly all kinds of castings, both brass and iron and for 
castings of considerable size. When used for composition or 
brass castings, it is made somewhat drier than when used for 
iron, as composition metals will not lie quietly against a damp 
surface and a scabbed face will result. For boiler fronts, 
cab brackets for locomotives, and general light castings on 
bench or side-floor work, cotton and woolen machinery castings 
and small tool castings, highly permeable sand should be used. 

No. 2 Albany sand, or sand of a similar grade, is largely used 
for side-floor work and for some of the heavier castings molded 
under a crane. It may be used for castings weighing several 
tons. As much depends on the skill of the molder as on the 
sand when making molds for castings whose weight is measured 
in tons. A scabbed casting may often result from improper 



224 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

venting of the mold, especially where the iron remains in a 
molten state for any length of time after pouring. The sand 
is often blamed for poor results whereas they rightly should be 
traced to the ignorance of the molder in regard to vents and 
passageways through which gas may escape from the mold. 

Lathe beds, locomotive and small-engine castings, made in 
green sand, may be molded in a sand of similar analysis to that 
of Coxsackie No. 2. Albany sand No. 3, or Albany sand No. 4, 
are quite similar to this Coxsackie No. 2 sand, although it is 
somewhat coarser. They are used for printing-press frames, 
planer beds and tables, drop-press beds, shear frames, beds for 
stone crushers, engine beds, and the heavier machine-tool 
castings. It is also used as a component in mixtures for skin- 
dried and dry-sand molds and for core-sand mixtures. 

As the sand becomes coarser, its bonding properties which 
give cohesion decrease, and the silica content, which aids in 
resisting fusion, increases. Many castings molded in green 
sand remain in a liquid state for a considerable period after 
pouring. They also require churning, pumping, or feeding with 
hot iron, during which period the sand is constantly absorbing 
heat from the casting. Hence, the resistance to fusion must 
be great and also the cohesiveness to prevent the sand crum- 
bling under the intense heat to which it is subjected. It is there- 
fore evident that the selection of the proper grade of molding 
sand for making any given class of castings, requires a knowl- 
edge of chemical analysis and of the granular formation. 
While any of the larger foundry-supply houses, as The S. Ober- 
mayer Co., Whitehead Bros., or J. W. Paxson & Co., will supply 
a good grade of sand for any given class of castings, the foun- 
dryman should have a general knowledge of the properties of 
molding sand in order to obtain the best results with the 
different classes of castings which he is required to make. 

In making castings with a very smooth surface, a sand 
that has been previously used will give a better surface than 
a new sand, fresh from storage. It is presumed, of course, that 
the used sand has sufficient strength, molding sand becoming 
"rotten" or weakened by constant use. If it is necessary to 



MOLDING SANDS 225 

use new sand, it is advisable to first spread it on the floor and 
then flow molten iron over it to burn it. The following day, 
some of the old sand from the heap should be mixed with this 
sand and used as a facing on the mold. 

Molding sand, as it comes from the pit where it is mined, 
contains a certain amount of vegetable or animal life. The 
sand must be burned to get rid of this. As an instance of what 
may happen in an unburned sand, the case of a large mold 
which remained unpoured for a number of days after finishing 
may be cited. This mold was made of new sand and on being 
opened, prior to pouring, it was found that a number of plants 
were sprouting from the face of the mold. Considerable time 
was lost and no little expense incurred in going over the face 
of the mold to repair the damage caused. The importance of 
properly preparing molding sand, to prevent occurrences of 
this character, is becoming recognized and machinery is now 
on the market for such purposes. 

Molding sand, after being used a certain length of time, 
loses its bond or cohesion. Every time a casting is removed 
from the mold, a certain amount of sand adheres to it and 
is thereby lost. New sand is added to the sand heap, not only 
to make up for this loss, but to restore the bond to the older 
sand. New molding sand is of a yellowish or reddish yellow 
appearance, ranging to a deep reddish brown due to the 
presence of oxide of iron. Molding sand which has been used 
gradually assumes a deep black color, due to the presence of 
the seacoal facing which is burned into the sand. 

When the sand heap becomes very black in color, mechani- 
cal tests should be applied and, if found lacking in strength, 
the sand should be renewed. A mold made of sand of low 
strength is liable to have the face washed from it by the in- 
flowing iron or, in closing the mold, a portion of the sand is 
liable to drop. 

Foundrymen have many methods of testing the physical 

quality of molding sands. For instance, a foundryman will 

take a handful of tempered sand, squeeze it in his hand to form 

an elongated mass. He then suspends it by one end from 

15 



226 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

between his thumb and forefinger. If it breaks off from its 
own weight, it is not considered a strong sand. If, however, 
it hangs together, thus indicating strength, there may be an 
excessive amount of clay present. Therefore, a small portion 
is wet and rubbed between the thumb and forefinger, the 
amount of clay being judged from the stickiness of the sand 
as shown in this operation. Frequently, an open mold is made 
of the sand under consideration and after feeling it to deter- 
mine the hardness, iron is poured on it and its action observed. 
The test gives a very close estimate of the value of the sand. 
While these different tests have their value to the experienced 
foundrymen, they are not in any case equal to a microscopic 
and chemical examination of the sand. Generally, if a sand in 
use in a foundry is satisfactory to those in charge of the prac- 
tical operations, it is unwise to change, as there is considerable 
liability of many castings being lost before the molders become 
accustomed to the new sand. 

The report of the Board of Geological Survey of the State 
of Wisconsin, in 1907, says regarding molding sands: "Un- 
fortunately no standard method of examination or testing 
has been adopted by the foundrymen, much as this is to be 
desired. A few buy their sand on the basis of composition; 
others specify sands of a certain texture or both texture and 
composition may be considered. The majority of foundry- 
men, however, depend upon the judgment of their foreman 
who, in many cases, uses empirical methods for determining 
the value of the material. If the fears expressed by many 
foundrymen are well founded, the time may not be far distant 
when the supply of high-grade sands will be exhausted and the 
production of artificial materials, by the admixture of sand 
and clay, will be necessary." 

Preparation of Sand for Molding. — After the flasks in 
which the previous day's castings were made have been 
shaken out and the castings removed from the sand, the sand 
is wet down. The molder or his helper do this with a pail of 
water, throwing the pail around in a circular path and tipping 
it so that the water will fly over the edge on one side and form 



MOLDING SANDS 227 

a thin sheet covering quite an area. This operation is con- 
tinued until, in the judgment of the molder, the sand is 
sufficiently damp. If, in molding on the previous day, the 
sand has shown insufficient strength, new molding sand is at 
this point added to the heap, it being spread over the entire 
surface. The sand is then "cut over" with the shovel. As 
each shovelful of sand is thrown, a twist is given to the shovel 
to spread the sand as much as possible. Lumps are broken 
up with the flat or under side of the shovel. Any dry portions, 
which are encountered in cutting the sand, are moistened, care 
being taken to avoid making the sand too wet. An excess of 
moisture in the sand will cause the metal in the mold to bubble 
or "kick," whereas sand that is too dry will crumble when the 
pattern is drawn. It is difficult, if not impossible, to describe 
a properly tempered sand, which is determined by the sense of 
touch of the molder. This can be acquired only by experience. 

As sand may remain in a flask for some little time after 
the mold has been poured, it may bake hard in the flask. 
When the mold is shaken out, the sand will be found to have 
formed in a mass of large and small lumps. These must be 
broken up before water is applied, otherwise moisture will 
not soak in when the sand is wet down. The effect of not 
breaking these lumps becomes evident when molding. If one 
of these lumps is broken up while sand is being riddled over 
the pattern, a small shower of dry sand will fall into the mold 
and will fail to cohere to the tempered sand. The result will 
be a rough, a broken casting. The more thoroughly sand is 
tempered and cut over, the more easily it will be worked by 
the molder. 

Information regarding the molding sands, fire sands, and 
fire-clay of various States, can be obtained from the State 
Geologists and Mineralogists. The more important reports 
on these subjects are as follows: 

Pennsylvania. "Report of Topographic and Geologic 
Survey Com.mission, 1906-1908." "Annual Report of the 
Secretary of Internal Affairs, Pennsylvania, Part III, Indus- 
trial Statistics, 1907." 



228 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

Wisconsin. "Bulletin 15, The Clays of Wisconsin and 
Their Uses." 

Michigan. "Report of the State Board Geological Sur- 
vey, 1907." 

New Jersey. "Report of the Geological Survey of New 
Jersey, 1904." 

New York. "Clay Industries of New York, 1895." H. 
Ries. "Clays of New York; Their Properties and Uses." H. 
Ries. "Mining and Quarry Industry of New York." D. H. 
Newland, 1905, 1906. "Mining and Quarry Industry of New 
York, 1906, July, 1907." "Mining and Quarry Industry of 
New York." D. H. Newland, 1907, 1908. 

Missouri. "Missouri Geological Survey Report. Sand 
and Clays." Wheeler. 

Facing Materials 

For forming the surface of molds, it is often necessary to 
use a different material from molding sand. There are many 
facings on the market, the more common ones being seacoal, 
plumbago, powdered charcoal, talc, and gashouse carbon. 

Seacoal. — Seacoal is a facing made from bituminous coal. 
It obtained its name from the fact that coal was formerly 
brought to London by sea, and became known as seacoal in 
contradistinction to coal brought in overland. The name has 
clung to it, although in a strict sense it is meaningless. 

Most of the seacoal facing manufactured in this country is 
made from coal mined in Westmoreland County, Pa. A good 
gas coal is required for manufacturing first-class seacoal facing, 
as it must contain a high percentage of volatile matter, with 
a low percentage of ash and other impurities. The writer 
is indebted to the S. Obermayer Co. for the following in- 
formation regarding seacoal : Coal of approximately the fol- 
lowing analysis is used: Fixed carbon, 60.52 per cent.; water, 
1.37 per cent.; volatile matter, 34.75 per cent.; sulphur, 0.678 
per cent.; ash, 21.675 per cent. The coal is prepared by being 
ground, screened, and bolted to the degree of fineness desired. 

For use in molds for the heavier castings, most foundrymen 



MOLDING SANDS 229 

prefer it ground to what is termed "gunpowder." This grade 
is also used on medium crane, and heavy side-floor work. The 
finest ground and bolted seacoal facing is used on light work 
where intricate designs are traced on the face of the pattern. 
Seacoal is used in the foundry, mixed with molding sand in 
different proportions according to the class of castings to be 
made. 

For castings one-quarter of an inch thick it is used mixed in 
the proportions of one part of seacoal and twelve parts of sand, 
depending somewhat on how sharp the iron is to be poured, 
and with lesser amounts of sand to one part of seacoal for 
the heavier castings. 

For castings one-eighth of an inch thick, as for certain 
classes of cotton machinery and in the teeth of fine gears which 
are hard to free from sand with pickle, it is mixed in the propor- 
tion of one part seacoal to twenty parts of sand, while on car- 
wheels it is used one of seacoal to nine of sand. It often is 
used in front of a gate where there is supposed to be danger 
of iron cutting the mold as it enters. 

One part of seacoal to five parts coarse molding sand is 
about as strong as it can be used. It is well tore member, 
when using strong seacoal facing sand, to use the vent-wire 
freely, as, the stronger the facing, the more gas there is to 
escape. 

In mixing seacoal facing for green-sand work, the sand 
should be used as dry as possible, and when the proper propor- 
tion of seacoal has been added to the sand, it should be 
shoveled over in order to mix it thoroughly, and then riddled. 
If flour is to be added to the mixture it is added at the same 
time as the seacoal. The mass is wet down and turned over in 
order to mix it, and is tramped to force the component parts 
together, and to break up the lumps. It is next passed through 
a No. 8 sieve. For some of the larger castings a little flour is 
added, say, one part flour to twenty-five parts sand for a mold 
that is to be skin-dried, and one of flour to thirty- two of sand 
where it is not skin-dried, this usually being done when a 
poorer grade of molding sand is used which is deficient in bond. 



230 ^ FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

When mixing the seacoal and sand it is well to remember 
that if mixed too strong, or if too much seacoal is used in pro- 
portion to the amount of sand, the casting will be "veined" 
or "mapped." 

Seacoal is not used generally to produce an especially 
smooth surface on castings, although, if a little lead be used 
with seacoal facing, there will be produced a fairly smooth 
casting. 

Plumbago. — Among the many facings used in the foundry 
to give the castings a clean, bright surface, and to prevent 
the sand from burning on to the face of the casting, there is 
no greater favorite than the facing known as plumbago ; silver 
lead and Ceylon lead stand high. There are large quantities 
of Ceylon lead used in the manufacture of foundry facings, and 
the richer they are in it, the better the results obtained. The 
pure material gives the smooth surface desired in machinery 
castings, it being applied after the mold is faced with the sea- 
coal facing. 

Ceylon lead or graphite is "native carbon in hexagonal 
crystals, also foliated or granular masses, of black color and 
metallic luster, and so soft as to leave a trace on paper." It 
is often called plumbago or black lead. Ceylon graphite of 
high grade for facing purposes should analyze about as follows: 
moisture, 1.20 per cent.; alumina, 3.06 per cent.; silica, 16.14 
per cent.; oxide of iron, 5.90 per cent.; lime, 0.90 per cent.; 
graphitic carbon, 72.80 per cent. 

The bulk of Ceylon graphite imported for foundry facings 
runs between 50 to 60 per cent graphitic carbon. For thin 
castings the lead is usually placed in a bag which is shaken 
over the mold, the lead passing through and falling lightly on 
the face of the mold until enough has been applied to give the 
desired result. After it has been brushed with a camel's-hair 
brush, the mold is blown out with the bellows to remove any 
lead not adhering to the face of the mold. 

In molds for very thin castings the lead at times cannot be 
brushed on. In such cases a little charcoal is dusted on top of 
the mold and the pattern is printed back, the charcoal keeping 



MOLDING SANDS 23 1 

the lead from sticking to the pattern and spoiHng the face of 
the mold. Or it may be dusted on and blown off as the con- 
dition and form of mold may require. Thicker castings, 
however, require the aid of s^acoal facing. With such molds, 
the lead is sometimes brushed on with a camel's-hair brush, 
light, quick strokes being used. Again, on the heavier cast- 
ings it may be rubbed on with the hand and then lightly 
brushed off; also it is often slicked on with the trowel and 
slicker. 

For blacking dry-sand molds lead is sometimes wet with 
molasses water, and brushed on, and the heavier castings are 
usually blackened with a mixture made to the consistency of 
cream and laid on with a swab. After the blacking has been 
allowed to set, the face of the mold is slicked all over with tools, 
and then lightly brushed with molasses water to give it a 
finishing smoothness. It is also used in the same way for 
blacking cores. 

On loam molds, it is advisable to boil and add a little com- 
mon starch to the blacking mixture, and to slick the blacking 
green on the face of the mold. The starch will prevent the 
blacking from flaking off in thin sheets. Clay water is some- 
times used instead of starch. 

German lead is sticky on green-sand molds when used alone 
and requires a coating of charcoal over it to "prevent it from 
adhering to the tool. It is largely used for mixture with 
other blackings, to make a wet blacking for dry-sand and loam 
molds. It will peel heavy castings when used properly. 

Mexican and Austrian leads, or graphite, are used by many 
in place of Ceylon lead, as they are much cheaper, but do not 
work as nicely on the heavier class of castings, or give them 
the attractive color or surface that Ceylon lead does. They do 
not resist heat and protect the mold like Ceylon lead. 

Blackstone and Valley Falls lead, also called Rhode Island 
facing, is a carbonaceous mineral which is neither coal nor lead, 
but when ground fine and applied to the face of a mold is 
capable of protecting it from the intense heat of the molten 
metal. It is naturally sticky and, if shaken on to the face of a 



232 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

mold through a bag and sHcked, requires a coating of charcoal 
to prevent it from sticking to the tools. It was, and is still, 
used to some extent as a facing for stove-plate molds, by being 
shaken on to the mold through a bag, after which a coating of 
charcoal is shaken on top of it and the pattern replaced. This 
is called "printing back the pattern." It is also used with 
other blackings to make wet blacking, for dry-sand and loam 
work. 

Lehigh blacking consists of Lehigh coal ground fine and 
is used to mix with other blackings to make wet blacking 
for dry-sand and loam work. 

Coke blacking is coke ground fine for mixing with other 
blackings for making wet blacking. 

Charcoal blacking or powdered charcoal is used on green-sand 
molds over other blackings which would stick to tools. It is 
used in stove-plate work when printing back to prevent other 
blackings from sticking to the patterns. It may be used as a 
facing for dusting on very light work, but it requires something 
to cause it to adhere to the face of the mold. For this reason 
it is used in place of parting sand at times, to part molds in 
making very light castings. It is used, too, in mixtures of 
wet blacking to keep the tools from sticking to the blacking 
and to allow the blacking to be slicked, which could not be 
done if charcoal were not used. 

Talc or soapstone, sometimes called white plumbago, is 
used in mixtures of blacking for cores and for dry-sand work. 
It will give a coating capable of resisting a high degree of heat, 
and when shaken on the face of a mold after the mold has been 
given a coating of lead, or other blacking, the iron will run 
on it farther and smoother than it will without it. In this 
way cold shuts may be avoided. Castings made in molds 
in which it has been used show something of a cream color 
when coming from the sand, instead of the handsome blue 
shade shown when Ceylon lead is used. 

Gashouse carbon facing is carbon taken from the gas retorts 
and ground. It is one of the best facings for mixing with 
others for wet blacking for cores, dry-sand, and loam molds. 



MOLDING SANDS 233 

Fire sand is a highly refractory silica sand used in making 
molds for iron and steel. In the foundry it is used to mix with 
coarse molding sand to form mixtures for making dry-sand and 
loam work and to make mixtures for facing molds of cylinders 
for steam- and gas-engines. Of the larger sizes, hydraulic and 
pump cylinders, rolls and castings requiring to be sound and 
clean, or to have a positive thickness of walls or where on ac- 
count of the weight or for some special reason it may be con- 
sidered safer to make the casting in dry rather than in green 
sand. 

As a base to work from there may be used seven parts 
good coarse molding sand and seven parts coarse New Jersey 
fire sand mixed, to which is added one part flour and after the 
whole has been thoroughly mixed it should be wet with mo- 
lasses water mixed in the proportion of one part molasses to 
fourteen or sixteen parts water. 

The mixture is varied according to the quality and grade 
of sands and flour for the grade of work. This sand is also 
mixed with other sands for making large cores where the cores 
are to be subjected to intense heat from large bodies of metal. 
It is also used for making the hearth for reverberatory fur- 
naces, being wet with claywash or mixed with ground clay 
dry, and then wet. It is also valuable for forming mixtures 
for daubing large ladles, or in lining large cupolas. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

IRON AND ITS COMPOSITION 

Iron, the metal most generally used in the foundry, is one 
of the chemical elements. The iron of commerce, however, 
is not pure metal, but is a compound of iron with various 
metalloids such as carbon, silicon, phosphorus, sulphur, man- 
ganese, etc. Each of these exercises an important influence 
on the structure of the iron, the latter principally through their 
action on the carbon, which is, without doubt, the most im- 
portant element entering into the iron. The percentage of 
carbon in the iron determines its grade and also whether it 
comes under the classification of iron or steel. These points 
will be discussed in more detail later. 

The iron of commerce when examined under the microscope 
has a structure closely allied to granite in appearance. It is 
composed of two definite substances, known to the metal- 
lurgists respectively as ferrite and cementite. The former is 
pure metallic iron and is soft, weak, and very ductile. The 
latter is a chemical compound of iron and carbon, is harder 
than glass and very brittle. It, however, has great strength 
to resist gradually applied pressure. The relative proportion 
of ferrite and cementite in any given iron determines its grade. 

Carbon. — The total amount of carbon in cast-iron ranges 
from 3 to 4 per cent. It exists in the iron in three states, 
namely : combined carbon which is the carbon in the carbide 
of iron forming the cementite; free carbon, also known as 
graphitic carbon, which exists in the form of small flakes of 
pure carbon entangled in the crystals of ferrite and cementite ; 
and tempering graphite carbon into which combined carbon is 
gradually changed by the prolonged application of heat. This 
last is relatively unimportant compared to the other two. 

The combined carbon has the effect of increasing the hard- 

234 



IRON AND ITS COMPOSITION 235 

ness, shrinkage, and brittleness of cast-iron. The strength of 
the iron increases with the amount of combined carbon up to 
about I per cent of the latter. Above i per cent, combined 
carbon tends to decrease the strength of the metal. 

The graphitic carbon tends to soften and weaken the iron 
if present in quantities of over 3 per cent. If the iron contains 
I per cent or more of combined carbon, being at the same time 
low in graphitic carbon, any additions of the latter will in- 
crease the strength of the casting. The amount of graphitic 
carbon in a casting is increased with the size of the casting, 
and it is also increased when the casting is held a long time in 
the mold at high temperature; in other words, when it is 
cooled slowly. This is due to the action of the combined 
carbon changing to temper graphite as explained above. 

Silicon. — The tendency of silicon in cast-iron is to soften 
the casting. It acts by changing combined carbon into 
graphitic carbon and also by counteracting the effect of any 
sulphur which may be present and which exercises a harden- 
ing effect upon the iron. The silicon also may act to increase 
the strength of the iron when the latter is high in combined 
carbon, as it tends to reduce brittleness. If, however, the 
addition of silicon is such as to reduce the combined carbon to 
below I per cent it will seriously weaken the iron. If present 
in quantities over 3.5 per cent it changes the character of the 
iron entirely, the iron becoming silvery in color instead of gray 
and also becoming brittle and weak. Manganese present in 
the iron will, like sulphur, react with the silicon and decrease 
the effect of the latter on the iron. 

Sulphur. — Sulphur present in the iron reacts with the 
carbon present to form combined carbon and thereby increases 
the hardness, brittleness, and shrinkage of the casting. In ad- 
dition to 'ts action on the carbon it also has in itself a weaken- 
ing effect on the iron. On account of its effect on the shrink- 
age, patterns which are made for use with iron high in sulphur 
must have a greater shrinkage allowance than the usual one- 
eighth inch per foot, otherwise the casting will be smaller than 
desired. The sulphur should never be permitted to increase 



2^6 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

beyond o.i per cent, as any excess of this amount will render 
the iron brittle and weak unless other elements are present in 
sufficient quantity to counteract it. The iron will be danger- 
ously brittle even with such a low quantity as 0.06 per cent 
sulphur if the amount of silicon present is less than i per cent. 

Phosphorus, — The general effect of phosphorus is to in- 
crease the fluidity of the iron. In small quantities, say below 
0.7 per cent, it has but little effect on the strength of the iron, 
but if present in quantities of i per cent or more the effect is 
decidedly weakening. Like silicon it acts to increase the soft- 
ness of the iron and also to decrease the shrinkage. On account 
of its increasing the fluidity of the iron, it is a desirable element 
when thin castings such as stove plates are to be made, as the 
iron will flow freely to all parts of the mold before cooling. It 
is also valuable in ornamental castings of thin section which 
have on their surface fine lines and sharp projections. The 
iron containing phosphorus will flow freely into these lines 
and projections and reproduce the pattern perfectly. 

Manganese. — Manganese when present in quantities of 
2 per cent or more increases the hardness of the iron. When 
present in small quantities, say 0.5 per cent or less, it tends to 
counteract the effect of the sulphur present and thus acts as 
a softener. In quantities of from 0.5 per cent to 2.0 per cent 
it changes graphitic carbon to combined carbon and thus acts 
as a hardener. A peculiar property of manganese, and one 
wherein it differs from most of the other constituents of iron, 
is that it will combine with iron chemically in almost all pro- 
portions. In quantities of 10 to 30 per cent in the iron it 
forms spiegeleisen and when present in quantities of over 50 
per cent the alloy is known as ferro-manganese. These alloys 
are used as additions to iron and steel in the ladle after they 
have been melted in the cupola or other furnace to make up 
deficiencies in the metal and to act as softeners or to toughen 
the metal as the case may require. Manganese also acts to 
increase shrinkage. While ordinary pig iron usually contains 
not over 4 per cent of carbon, this quantity can be increased 
in the presence of manganese, which increases the solubility of 



IRON AND ITS COMPOSITION 237 

carbon in iron. The property of manganese to toughen and 
harden cast-iron is taken advantage of in the casting of chilled 
rolls, on which a hard surface is desired. It is added in quan- 
tities of about I per cent. It must not be permitted to exceed 
0.4 per cent if softness is required in the finished casting. 
Another effect of manganese is to decrease the magnetism of 
iron and it must therefore be avoided in castings for electrical 
machinery, as iron with 25 per cent manganese is totally de- 
void of magnetism. 

Miscellaneous Impurities. — Other metals often encoun- 
tered in iron are as follows: Aluminum in quantities of from 
0.2 to i.o per cent will increase the softness and strength of 
white iron. Added to gray iron it softens and weakens it. 
Vanadium, in quantities of 0.15 per cent, will increase the 
strength of iron, acting as deoxidizer and also alloying with the 
iron. Titanium, when added in quantities of 2 to 3 per cent 
of a titanium-iron alloy containing 10 per cent titanium, will 
increase the strength of the iron from 20 to 30 per cent. Its 
action is to combine with any oxygen or nitrogen present in 
the metal and thus purify it. The titanium oxide or nitride 
passes off and no titanium remains in the metal. After the 
metal has been totally deoxidized, further additions of tita- 
nium have no effect. Aluminum, vanadium, and titanium are 
all added to the iron in the ladle after melting, in the form of 
alloys of these metals with iron. Copper when present in 
quantities of o.i to i.o per cent closes the grain of cast-iron, 
but has no particular effect as regards brittleness. 

Grading of Pig Iron 

Up to quite recent times, pig iron was graded by the foun- 
drymen and blast-furnace operators largely according to the 
appearance of the fracture obtained when a pig was broken. 
As the appearance of the fracture depends on the relative 
quantities of graphitic and combined carbon present, this 
method gave a fairly close approximation to the quality of the 
iron. In more recent years, however, grading by fracture has 



238 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



been largely superseded by the method of grading by analysis. 
The designations of pig iron according to grade vary in dif- 
ferent sections of the country. Thus in Pennsylvania and 
eastern parts of the United States grades are known as Nos. 
I and 2 Foundry, Gray Forge No. 3, Mottled No. 4, White 
No. 5. Intermediate grades are designated by the addition 
of the letter X to the grade of the higher number. Thus an 
intermediate grade between Nos. 2 and 3 would be known as 
No. 3X. The following table from Kent's "Mechanical 
Engineers' Pocket-Book," eighth edition, page 414, gives the 
analyses of the five standard grades of northern foundry and 
mill pig iron : 



TABLE V. — Analyses of Foundry Irons 



Iron 

Graphitic carbon . . 
Combined carbon. 

Silicon 

Phosphorus 

Sulphur 

Manganese 



No. I 



Per Cent 

92.37 
3 52 
0.13 
2.44 
125 
0.02 
0.28 



No. 2 



Per Cent 

92.31 

2.99 

0.37 
2.52 
1.08 
0.02 
0.72 



No. 3 



Per Cent 
94.66 
2.50 
I 52 
0.72 
0.26 
trace 
0.34 



No. 4 



Per Cent 

94.48 

2.02 

1.98 

0.56 

o. 19 

0.08 
0.67 



No. 4B 



Per Cent 

94.08 

2.02 

1-43 
0.92 
0.04 
0.04 
2.02 



No. 5 



Per Cent 
94.68 



3-83 
0.41 
0.04 
0.02 
0.98 



The characteristics of the above irons are given in the same 
work as follows: 

No. I Gray. — A large, dark, open-grained iron, softest of 
all the numbers and used exclusively in the foundry. Tensile 
strength low. Elastic limit low, fracture rough, turns soft 
and tough. 

No. 2 Gray. — A mixed, large and small, dark grain, harder 
than No. i, and used exclusively in the foundry. Tensile 
strength and elastic limit higher than No. i. Fracture less 
rough than No. i. Turns harder, less tough, and more brittle 
than No. i. 

No. 3 Gray. — Small, gray, close grain, harder than No. 2, 
used either in the rolling mill or foundry. Tensile strength 



IRON AND ITS COMPOSITION 239 

and elastic limit higher than No. 2. Turns less hard, less 
tough, and more brittle than No. 2. 

No. 4 Mottled. — White background dotted closely with 
small black spots of graphitic carbon. Little or no grain. 
Used exclusively in the rolling mill. Tensile strength and 
elastic limit lower than No. 3. Turns with difficulty, less 
tough and more brittle than No. 3. The manganese in the No. 
4B pig iron replaces part of the combined carbon, making the 
iron harder and closing the grain, notwithstanding the lower 
combined carbon. 

No. 5 White. — Smooth, white fracture, no grain. Used 
exclusively in the rolling mill. Tensile strength and elastic 
limit lower than No. 4. Too hard to turn and more brittle 
than No. 4. 

For making chilled castings a special grade of iron is re- 
quired, one which has a gray fracture when cooled slowly, but 
which when cast against a chill will show white iron for a cer- 
tain depth on the side which was rapidly cooled by reason 
of its contact with the iron chill. See the analyses of chilled 
castings, Table VIII, pages 242-3. 

Specifications for Foundry Pig Iron 

In May, 1909, the American Foundrymen's Association 
adopted standard specifications for foundry pig iron and rec- 
ommended that all pig iron for foundry use be bought by 
analysis. It recommended sampling each carload of iron, 
taking therefrom one-half of a sand-cast pig or one machine- 
cast pig for every four tons in the car. Drillings should be 
taken fron these pigs to represent as nearly as possible the 
composition of the pig as cast and an equal quantity of the 
drillings from each pig should be mixed to form the sample 
for analysis. When the elements are specified, the following 
percentages and variations are to be used. Opposite each 
percentage of the different elements a syllable has been 
affixed so that buyers by combining these syllables can form a 
code word for telegraphic use. 



240 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



TABLE VI 



Silicon 


Sulphur 


Total Carbon 


Manganese 


Phosphorus 


Per Cent 


Code 


(Max.) 


Code 


(Min.) 


Code 


Per Cent 


Code 


Per Cent 


Code 






0.04 


Sa 


3.00 


Ca 


0.20 


Ma 


0.20 


Pa 


I. 00 


La 


0.05 


Se 


3.20 


Ce 


0.40 


Me 


0.40 


Pe 


1.50 


Le 


0.06 


Si 


340 


Ci 


0.60 


Mi 


0.60 


Pi 


2.00 


Li 


0.07 


So 


3.60 


Co 


0.80 


Mo 


0.80 


Po 


2.50 


Lo 


0.08 


Su 


3.80 


Cu 


I .00 


Mu 


1. 00 


Pu 


3.00 


Lu 


0.09 


Sy 






1-25 


My 


125 


Py 






O.IO 


Sh 






1.50 


Mh 


1.50 


Ph 



Percentages of any element specified one-half way between 
the above are designated by the addition of the letter x to the 
next lower symbol. Thus Lex means 1.75 silicon. The 
allowed variations are silicon 0.25, phosphorus 0.20, manganese 
0.20. The percentages of phosphorus and manganese may be 
used as maximum or minimum figures when so specified. An 
example of the use of the above code is as follows : Li-si-pa-ma 
represents an iron of the following analysis — Silicon 2.00, 
sulphur 0.06, phosphorus 0.20, manganese 0.20. For market 
quotations, an iron of 2 per cent silicon with a variation of 
0.25 per cent either way and maximum sulphur content of 
0.05 is taken as the base and the following table may then be 

TABLE VII 



Sul- 
phur 



0.04 
0.05 
0.06 
0.07 
0.08 
o.oz 

O.IO 











Silicon 
2.25 




1 


3-25 


3-00 


2.75 


2.50 


2.00 


1-75 


1.50 


1.25 


B+6C 


B+sC 


B+4C 


B+3C 


B+2C 


B+ C 


B 


B-iC 


B-2C 


B+SC 


B+4C 


B+3C 


B-I-2C 


B+iC 


B 


B-iC 


B-2C 


B-3C 


B+4C 


B+3C 


B-(-2C 


B + iC 


B 


B-iC 


B-2C 


B-3C 


B-4C 


B+3C 


B+2C 


B+iC 


B 


B-iC 


B-2C 


B-3C 


B-4C 


B-5C 


B+2C 


B+iC 


B 


B-iC 


B-2C 


B-3C 


B-4C 


B-5C 


B~6C 


B+iC 


B 


B-iC 


B-2C 


B-3C 


B-4C 


B-5C 


B-6C 


B-7C 


B 


B-iC 


B-2C 


B-3C 


B-4C 


B-5C 


B-6C 


B-7C 


B-8C 



1. 00 
B-3C 
B-4C 
B-5C 
B-6C 
B-7C 
B-8C 
B-gC 



IRON AND ITS COMPOSITION . 24I 

filled out as part of a contract. In this table B or base 
represents the agreed price for a pig of 2 per cent silicon and 
of lower sulphur content than 0.05. C is a constant differen- 
tial to be determined at the time the contract is made. 

Analyses of Castings 

A committee of the American Society for Testing Materials 
in 1908 recommended that the sulphur in light gray-iron 
castings be not allowed to exceed 0.08 per cent; in medium 
castings not over o.io per cent; in heavy castings not over 
0.12 per cent. A light casting is one which has no section over 
one-half inch thick and a heavy casting has no section less 
than two inches thick. The same society in 1905 specified 
for metal in cast-iron pipe four grades of pig iron as follows: 
No. I, silicon 2.75, sulphur 0.035; No. 2, silicon 2.25, sulphur 
0.045; No. 3, silicon 1.75, sulphur 0.055; No. 4, silicon 1.25, 
sulphur 0.065. A variation of 10 per cent either way in the 
silicon is permitted and of o.oi per cent in the sulphur above 
the standard is allowed. 

In June, 1910, the American Foundrymen's Association 
published a report by Dr. John Jermain Porter, showing 
tentative standards or probable best analyses of a large 
variety of iron castings. This report was abridged in tabular 
form as reproduced below in Industrial Engineering in August, 
1910. The definitions of light and heavy castings conform 
to those given in the above paragraph. The most desirable 
percentage of silicon depends largely on the exact thickness of 
the casting and the practice followed in shaking out. The 
effect of purifying alloys and the use of steel scrap were not 
considered in compiling the report. In many cases a wide 
range of compositions is permissible and compatible with the 
best results, and in such cases the question of cost will be the 
first element to be considered. The sources of information in 
compiling this table were published works, replies to inquiries 
sent to members of the association, and private notes of 
Dr. Porter. 
16 



242 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



TABLE VIII. — Analyses of Castings 



'Class of Casting 



Acid-resisting castings (stills, 

eggs, etc.) 

Agricultural machinery, ordi- 
nary 

Agricultural machinery, very 

thin , 

Annealing boxes, etc , 

Automobile castings 

Balls for ball mills 

Boiler castings 

Car castings, gray iron 

Chilled castings , 

Chills 

Crusher jaws , 

Cutting tools, chilled , 

Cylinders: 

Air and ammonia , 

Automobile , 

Gas-engine , 

Hydraulic, heavy 

Hydraulic, medium , 

I^ocomotive , 

Steam-engine, heavy. . . . , 

Steam-engine, medium. . . . 

Dies, drop-hammer , 

Diamond polishing wheelsf. 
Electrical machinery (frames, 

bases, spiders), large 

Electrical machinery, small. . . 
Engine castings: 

Bed-plates 

Fly-wheels 

Fly-wheels, automobile 

Frames 

Pillow blocks 

Piston rings 

Fire pots and furnace castings. 

Grate bars 

Grinding machinery, chilled 

castings for 

Gun-carriages 

Gun iron 

Hardware^(light) and hollow 

ware 

Heat-resistant iron (retorts) . . . 

Ingot molds and stools 

Locomotive castings, heavy. . . 
Locomotive castings, light. . . . 
Machinery castings, heavy. . . . 
Machinery castings, medium. . 
Machinery castings, light 

Friction clutches 

Gears, heavy 

Gears, medium 

Gears, small 

Pulleys, heavy 

Pulleys, light 

Shaft collars and couplings . . 

Shaft hangers 

Ornamental work 

Permanent molds 

Permanent mold castings 



Si 
Per Cent 



1.00-2.00 

2.00-2.50 

2.25-2.75 
1. 40- 1. 60 
1.75-2.25 

I.00-I.2S 

2.00-2.50 
1.50-2.25 
0.75-1.25 
1.75-2.25 
0.80-1.00 
1. 00-1.25 



r.oo-i. 
1.75-2. 

I.OO-I. 

0.80-1. 

I. 20-1. 
I.OO-I. 
I.OO-I. 
I. 25-1. 
1. 25-1, 
2.70 



75 



2.00-2.50 
2.50-3.00 

1.25-1-75 
1.50-2.25 
2.25-2.50 
1.25-2.00 
I.S0-I.7S 
1.50-2.00 
2.00-2.50 
2.00-2.50 

0.50-0.75 
1. 00-1.25 
1. 00-1.25 



2.25- 
1.25- 
I.2S- 
I.25- 

1.50- 

I.OO- 

1.50- 

2.00- 

1.75- 

I.OO- 

1.50- 

2.00- 

1-75- 

2.25- 

1-75- 

1.50- 
2.25- 

2.00- 

1.50- 



2.75 
2.50 
1.50 
1.50 

2.00 

1.50 

2.00 

2.50 

2.00 

I. so 

2.00 

2.50 
2.25 
2.75 

2.00 
2.00 
2.75 
2.25 

3-00 



s 

Per Cent 



0.05-* 
0.06-o.oi 

0.06-0.08 
0.06- 
0.08- 
0.08- 
0.06- 
0.08- 

0.08-0.10 
0.07- 

0.08-0.10 
0.08- 

0.09- 
0.08- 
0.08- 
o.io- 
0.09- 
0.08-0.10 

O.IO- 

0.09- 
0.07- 
0.063 

0.08- 
0.08- 

O.IO- 

0.08- 
0.07- 
0.09- 
o.oS- 
0.08- 
0.06- 
0.06- 



p 

Per Cent 



0.40 
0.60-0.80 

0.70-0.90 
0.20- 

0.40-0.50 
0.20 

0.20- 

0.40-0.60 
0.20-0.40 
0.20-0.40 
0.20-0.40 
0.20-0.40 

0.30-0.50 
0.40-0.50 
0.20-0.40 
0.20-0.40 
0.30-0.50 
0.30-0.50 
0.20-0.40 
0.30-0.50 

0.20- 
0.30 

0.50-0.80 
0.50-0 

0.30-0.50 
0.40-0.60 
0.40-0.50 
0.30-0.50 
0.40-0.50 
0.30-0.50 

0.20 

0.20 



0.15-0.20 0.20-0.40 
0.06- 0.20-0.30 
0.06- 0.20-0.30 



o.o8- 
o.o6- 
0.06- 
0.08- 
0.08- 

O.IO- 

0.09- 
0.08- 

0.08-0. 

0.80-0. 
0.09- 
0.08- 
0.09- 
0.08- 
0.08- 
0.08- 
0.08- 
0.07- 
0.06- 



0.50-0. 

0.20- 
0.20- 

0.30-0. 
0.40-0. 
0.30-0. 
0.40-0. 
0.50-0. 
0.30- 
10 0.30-0. 
0.40-0. 
0.50-0. 
0.50-0. 
0.60-0. 
0.40-0. 
0.40-0. 
0.60-1. 

0.20-0. 



Mn 
Per Cent 



1.00-1.50 
0.60-0.80 



0.50- 
o.6o- 
o.6o- 
o.6o- 
o.6o- 
o.6o- 
0.80- 
0.60- 
0.80- 
0.60- 



■0.70 

■I.OO 

■0.80 

•I.OO 
I.OO 
I.OO 
1.20 
I.OO 
I 20 
0.80 



C 

(Comb.) 
Per Cent 



0.70-0.90 
0.60-0.80 0.55-0.65 
0.70-0.90 
0.80-1.00 
0.70-0.90 
0.80-1.00 
0.80-1.00 
0.70-0.90 
0.60-0.80 
0.44 



0.30-0.40 
0.30-0.40 

0.60-0.80 
0.50-0.70 
0.50-0.70 
0.60-1.00 
0.60-0.80 
0.40-0.60 
0.60-1.00 
0.60-1.00 

1.50-2.00 
0.80-1.00 



.50-0.70 
.60-1.00 
.60-1.00 
.70-0.90 
.60-0.80 
.80-1.00 
.60-0.80 
.50-0.70 
.50-0.70 
.80-1.00 
.70-0.90 
.60-0.80 
.60-0.80 
.50-0.70 
.60-0.80 
.60-0.80 
.50-0.70 
.60-1.00 
0.40- 



0.20-0.30 
0.20-0.30 



C 

(Total) 
Per Cent 



3.00-3.30 
3.00-3.25 
3.00-3.30 

low 

low 



low 



low 
2.97 



low 

low 



low 
low 
low 



low 
low 



low 



low 



low 
low 



* Affixed hyphens indicate that the percentages present should be under those given. 



IRON AND ITS COMPOSITION 



243 



TABLE VIII. — Analyses of Castings — Continued 



Class of Casting 



Si 
Per Cent 



s 


P 


Per Cent 


Per Cent 


0.07- 


0.40-0.60 


O.IO- 


0.50-0.80 


0.08- 


0.50-0.80 


0.08- 


0.20-0.40 


0.08- 


0.20-0.30 


0.10-, 


0.20-0.40 


0.08- 


0.60-0.80 


0.08- 


0.60-0.80 


0.08- 


0.40-0.60 


0.08- 


0.20-0.30 


0.06-0.08 


0.20-0.40 


0.03 


0.25 


0.08- 


0.60-1.00 


0.07- 


0.30- 


0.09- 


0.50-0.80 


0.08- 


0.60-0.90 


O.OQ- 


0.20-0.40 


0.08- 


0.30-0.50 


0.08- 


0.30-0.50 


0.09- 


0.30-0.40 


0.08- 


0.40-0.50 


0.15-0.25 


0.20-0.70 



Ppr Tpnt' (Comb.) 

i'er Cent pgj. ^^^^ 



C 

(Total) 
Per Cent 



Piano plates 

Pipe 

Pipe fittings 

Pipe fittings for superheated 

steam lines 

Plow points, chilled 

Propeller wheels 

Pr.mps, hand 

Radiators 

Railroad castings 

Rolling mill machinery: 

Housings 

Rolls, chilled 

Rolls, unchilled (sand-cast)t 

Scales 

Slag car castings 

Soil pipe and fittings 

Stove plate 

Valves, large 

Valves, small 

Water heaters 

Wheels, large 

Wheels, small 

White iron castingsf 



.00-2.25 
.50-2.00 
.75-2.50 

.50-1.75 
.75-1.25 
.00-1.75 
.00-2.25 
.00-2.25 
.50-2.25 

.00-1.25 

.60-0.80 
0.7s 
.00-2.30 
.75-2.00 
.75-2.25 
.25-2.75 
.25-1.75 
.75-2.25 
.00-2.25 
.50-2.00 
.75-2.00 
.50-0.90 



0.60-0.80 
0.60-0.80 
0.60-0.80 

0.70-0.90 
0.80-1.00 
0,60-1.00 
0.50-0.70 
0.50-0.70 
0.60-0.80 

0.80-1.00 
I. 00-1.20 

0,66 
0.50-0.70 
0.70-0.90 
0.60-0.80 
0.60-0.80 
0.80-1.00 
0.60-0.80 
0.60-0.80 
0.60-0.80 
0.50-0.70 
0.17-0.50 



low 



low 



0.50-0.60 



low 

3.00-3.2S 

4.10 



low 



t But one or two analyses available — no suggestion made. 

Mr. W. J. Keep in the Trans. A. S. M. E., Vol. XXIX, 
writes as follows regarding the analyses of iron for various 
classes of service : 

Hard Iron for Heavy Work. — Castings for compressor 
cylinder-valves, high-pressure work, etc. Chemical composi- 
tion: Silicon 1.20 to 1.50, sulphur under 0.09 per cent, phos- 
phorus 0.35 to 0.60 per cent, manganese 0.50 to 0.80 per cent. 

Medium Iron for General Work. — Castings for low- 
pressure cylinders, gears, pinions, etc. Chemical composi- 
tion: Silicon 1.50 to 2.00 per cent, sulphur under 0.08 per cent, 
phosphorus 0.35 to 0.60 per cent, manganese 0.50 to 0.80 per 
cent. 

Soft Iron. — For general car and railway castings, pulleys, 
small castings, and agricultural work. Chemical composition : 
Silicon 2.20 to 2.80 per cent (with less, the castings are hard, 
and with more they are too weak). For large castings, 2.40 
per cent is a good average. Sulphur under .085 per cent, 
phosphorus, under 0.70, manganese under 0.70 per cent. 



244 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



Iron for Frictional Wear. — Castings for brake shoes, 
friction clutches, etc. Chemical composition: Silicon 2.00 to 
2.50 per cent, sulphur under 0.15 per cent, phosphorus under 
0.70 per cent, manganese under 0.70 per cent. The addition 
of spiegeleisen increases hardness. 

The method of calculating the mixtures of the various 
brands of pig iron available for cupola charges to obtain the 
analyses as given in the above notes and table will be explained 
in Chapter XXIV. 

Shrinkage of Cast- Iron 

The common allowance for shrinkage of cast-iron in cooling 
from the liquid to the solid state is one-eighth inch per foot. 
As has been shown above, however, the percentage of the 
various elements alloyed with the iron has an important effect 
on the shrinkage. Mr. Keep says: "The measure of shrinkage 
is practically equivalent to a chemical analysis of the silicon. 
It tells whether more or less silicon is needed to bring the qual- 
ity of the casting to an accepted standard of excellence." Mr. 
Keep published in the Trans. A. S. M. E. the following 
table showing the variation in shrinkage with the size of bar 
on which his experiments were made and with the variation 
in the silicon contents of the iron. See also the Appendix, 
page 317. 

TABLE IX. — Shrinkage of Cast-Iron 



Silicon 


Size of Square Bars 
Shrinkage, Inch, per Foot 


Per Cent 


K inch 


I inch 


2 inch 


3 inch 


4 inch 


I .00 


0.178 


0.158 


0.129 


0. 112 


0.102 


1.50 


0. 166 


0.145 


0. 116 


0.099 


0.088 


2.00 


0.154 


0.133 


0. 104 


0.086 


0.074 


2.50 


0. 142 


0. 121 


0.091 


0.072 


0.060 


3.00 


0.130 


0. 109 


0.078 


0.058 


0.046 


3-50 


O.II8 


0.097 


0.065 


0.045 


0.032 



CHAPTER XXIV 

THE CUPOLA AND ITS OPERATION 

For melting iron for foundry use two types of furnaces are 
commonly used, the cupola and reverberatory or '' air'' furnace. 
Of these the cupola is the most widely used, although the 
reverberatory furnace is becoming very popular for certain 
classes of work. There are many different cupolas on the 
market which vary only in details of design. In principle 
they are all alike. A typical cupola is shown in Fig. 140. As 
will be observed it is a straight shaft furnace open at the top 
and bottom, lined with fire-brick, provided with a door at about 
the middle of its height through which the charge is introduced 
and with tuyeres near the bottom through which air is blown to 
consume the fuel which is charged to melt the iron. The open- 
ing at the bottom is closed by hinged cast-iron doors which are 
dropped at the end of the day's run in order to permit the un- 
consumed fuel and the residue of iron in the cupola to fall out 
and be removed. Molten iron is taken out through a hole at 
the bottom and slag is removed through a hole in the opposite 
side and at a slightly higher level than the iron tap-hole. 
The cupola is encircled near its base by a chamber, known as 
the wind-box, communicating with the tuyeres. The fan or 
pressure blower furnishing air to the cupola delivers it to this 
wind-box whence it finds its way through the tuyeres into the 
cupola. It is in the arrangement of the tuyeres that the 
various cupolas of different makers differ principally from 
each other. It would be out of place in a book of this char- 
acter to enter into a discussion of the various details of con- 
struction of different cupolas and the reader is referred to the 
catalogues of the various foundry-supply houses for informa- 
tion on this subject. 

Taking up the construction in detail of the cupola shown in 

245 



246 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

Fig. 140, the shell A is formed of separate rings of boiler plate 
riveted together with angles E riveted to the interior at in- 
tervals to support the fire-brick lining L. The shell is carried 
on a cast-iron bed-plate ring B, which is in turn supported by 
the cast-iron legs S. The opening in this ring is closed by 
a pair of hinged drop-doors, which when closed are held in 
place by a rod, or spud, wedged between them and the floor. 
At F is seen the wind-box encircling the cupola communicating 
with the tuyeres H and /. At G is the blast-pipe connecting 
the fan or blower with the wind-box. At C is the breast built 
around the tap-hole T through which iron is removed from 
the cupola, it flowing through a spout R. The slag-hole and 
spout are shown at W. Iron and fuel are introduced into the 
cupola through the charging door D, and in practice this door 
is usually at the level of the second floor of the foundry or a 
platform is built around it. Cleaning doors are built on 
either side of the wind-box to permit the removal of any slag 
or iron which may flow through the tuyeres into it. Opposite 
each tuyere a peep-hole P is provided, which is covered when 
not in use by a swinging cast-iron cover. By using these 
peep-holes the melter can ascertain in a measure how the cupola 
is operating. The tuyeres are of cast-iron and flare inward 
as shown in the plan. Fig. 141. 

The height of the tuyeres above the bed plate varies 
according to the class of work done in the foundry. The 
number of rows of tuyeres also ranges from one to three. Thus 
stove-plate work does not require a great depth of iron to be 
maintained in the basin, as the space between the bottom of 
the cupola and the tuyeres is known. Consequently, the 
tuyeres can be set at a lower level than in a cupola melting 
iron for heavy engine castings where a great volume of metal 
may be required at one time. The advantage of using two or 
more rows of tuyeres is that gases may be distilled from the 
fuel and escape without coming in contact with air blown 
through the lower row. They must, however, pass through 
air blown through the upper tuyeres and thus become com- 
pletely consumed. The double row of tuyeres, therefore, 



THE CUPOLA AND ITS OPERATION 



247 




248 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



renders possible economical operation and quick melting, inas- 
much as no fuel is wasted. When running small heats the 
upper row of tuyeres may be shut off by means of a damper. 
Also if the cupola is melting more rapidly than is desired, the 
upper tuyeres may be shut off and the amount of air furnished 
the cupola may be diminished by means of a damper in the 
blast-pipe. Thus the melting rate of the cupola is always 
under control of the melter. An arrangement is also provided 




Fig. 141. — Sectional Plan of Cupola Through Lower Tuyeres. 



whereby iron rising too high in the basin before tapping will 
run through a spout into the wind-box where it will melt a lead 
plug and fall to the floor, thus giving warning that the cupola 
should be tapped. 

Cupolas may use either coke or anthracite coal for fuel, 
coke being the most generally used. In preparing the cupola 
the bottom doors are closed and a sand bottom, usually com- 
posed of gangway sweepings or similar material, is built on 
them. This is tempered the same as molding sand and 
rammed down as in molding, being rammed harder at the 



THE CUPOLA AND ITS OPERATION 249 

bottom than at the surface. It is inclined toward the tap-hole 
so that the tendency will be for all iron to drain out. The fire 
in the cupola may be lighted either with wood or by means of a 
gas or oil burner. In the former case shavings are laid on the 
bottom with enough wood over them to insure thorough ig- 
nition of the coke. A bed charge of coke is placed in the cupola 
before any iron is charged and this is of considerably greater 
weight than the subsequent charges of coke which are charged 
alternately with charges of iron. A portion of this bed charge 
is laid on the wood and after it is thoroughly ignited the re- 
mainder of it is introduced into the cupola, only enough being 
reserved to level off the top of the bed charge before intro- 
ducing iron. 

When the coke is to be ignited by means of a gas or oil 
burner a space is left in front of the breast opening and one or 
two channel ways are formed, leading nearly to the back of 
the cupola, by pieces of coke laid end to end, through which 
the flames of a burner will pass. The channels are covered 
with pieces of coke, and one-half to one-third of the bed charge 
placed. The burner is then laid in the spout of the cupola 
and kept back from the breast opening a distance of about 
four inches. It is lighted and regulated so that the flame at 
the burner will be blue, changing to purple tipped with yellow. 
It is kept on until the coke is thoroughly ignited, usually a 
period of thirty minutes with the oil burner and somewhat 
less with the gas. On its removal, the breast is built as will be 
described later and the blast turned on to thoroughly ignite 
the entire charge of coke on the bed. When the blast is put 
on, the remainder of the bed charge is introduced into the 
cupola with the exception of enough reserved to level it before 
charging the iron. 

When the fire is visible through the coke, as viewed from 
the charging door, and the bed charge is leveled, charging 
should begin, as the fire should not be permitted to 
burn red hot. If the coke appears to be burning more 
freely on one side than on the other some of the coke reserved 
for leveling is thrown on that side and the peep-holes opened 



250 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

or closed to force the air to the side which has burned the least. 
The more evenly the coke is burned the better will the cupola 
melt and the better will be the grade of iron obtained for the 
mold. 

The breast is now built in and the tap-hole formed. Three 
different methods of doing this are in general use. When the 
shavings and wood used to fire the cupola have burned away 
the coke will settle down on the sand bottom in front of the 
breast opening. Any coke that may have fallen into the open- 
ing is removed and a tapered iron pin is laid in the tap spout, 
small end in, projecting into the cupola. With small pieces 
of coke a wall is built in front of the burning coke and in front 
of this wall the same mixture of fire-clay mud that is used for 
lining the cupola (see page 258) is rammed, after which the iron 
pin is withdrawn, leaving a tap-hole in the breast. The wall of 
coke soon ignites and dries out the breast. The second 
method consists in building the wall of coke as before, leaving 
quite a space in front of it. Wet shavings are forced against 
the coke, after which the pin is placed and the fire-clay breast 
rammed up as before. The third method utilizes a board with 
a notch in its lower edge which fits over the tap-hole pin and 
which is laid against the wall of coke. The breast is built 
against this board. Instead of fire-clay mud, some melters 
will use for the breast a mixture of molding sand wet with 
claywash, while others make use of any natural loam which 
may be found in the vicinity. 

The breast being in, it must be ascertained that the top of 
the bed charge is at the correct height. Every cupola has a 
melting zone above the tuyeres where it is the hottest, this 
zone being known as the melting zone. In a cupola which has 
been running for some time, this melting zone is easily ascer- 
tained by the condition of the lining which will be burned 
away to a certain extent as shown in Fig, 142. A rod with one 
end bent to a right angle to hang on the edge of the charging 
door may be provided, its length being such that it will drop 
in the cupola to the highest point of the melting zone. The 
bed charge should then be brought up to the lower end of this 



THE CUPOLA AND ITS OPERATION 



251 




Slldlne 

Wire Charging door 

Cousterbalaoced 



Slog Spout 



' Lining 8bA4 




grouting 

Where Cupola lining flrflt.burai out 



Hinged Spout 



Fig. 142. — Cupola Charging Arrangement. Also shows effect of wear 

on lining. 



252 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

rod. The use of a small amount of coke in the bed charge will 
lower the melting zone and a large amount will raise it. With 
a new cupola some experimenting is necessary to ascertain the 
proper height at which best results will be obtained before the 
amount of bed charge and its height are definitely determined. 
The quality of the iron melted will be influenced by this, as 
scrap will melt earlier than heavy pig iron, and if a large pro- 
portion of the former material is used the melting zone should 
be somewhat lower than if the bulk of the charge is pig iron. 
The quality of the melted iron is usually better with a high bed 
than with a low one. With a new cupola it is advisable to be 
on the safe side and start with a high bed, say twenty- two 
inches above the upper tuyeres, and by examination of the 
lining the following morning determine whether or not the 
amount of the bed charge should be reduced. 

The bed charge of coke having been brought to the right 
height, iron is introduced on it. The amount of the first 
charge of iron varies with different melters, ranging all the 
way from two and one-half pounds of iron per pound of coke 
in the bed charge to four pounds of iron per pound of coke. 
The amount of iron charged depends also on the total amount 
of iron to be melted in the heat and this also governs the size 
of the subsequent charges of iron and coke. Assume that our 
first charge of coke was 1,500 pounds. On this will be 
charged 4,500 pounds of iron. On this charge of iron will be 
placed 250 pounds of coke and on the coke a charge of 2,500 
pounds of iron. This ratio of coke and iron is maintained 
throughout the remainder of the heat. The arrangement of 
the various charges of coke and iron is shown in Fig. 143. We 
will later discuss the question of varying the size and weight of 
the charges of coke and iron, with their effect on the operation 
of the cupola. 

In charging with iron, the pig iron is usually placed in the 
cupola first, and on top of this the scrap. The scrap being free 
from scale usually melts more rapidly than the pig iron, and 
the pig iron being charged so as to reach the melting zone first, 
the two are usually melted at about the same time. The 



THE CUPOLA AND ITS OPERATION 



253 



charging of coke and iron alternately continues until the cupola 
is filled to the desired height or the amount of iron needed for 
the heat has been charged. If the cupola will not hold enough 
iron for the heat, after it has been filled to the level of the 



Chain and Hook 
TJflIng compresBfld ajj^-to^'Toxg bottom 





Gth Charge Iron 
0th Charge Cok» 
5th Charge Iron 
5th Charge Coke 
4tb Charge Iron 
4th Charge Coke 
3rd Charge Iron 
3rd Charge Coke 
Sod Charge Iron 
find Charge Coke' 



For Splitting blaet 
'Wioii opening, 
Or Entrance. 



.0 routing 



Door for cleaDing out Wind Box, or Chamher 
Peep hole 
Breast 

Spout 



Fig. 143. — Cupola Charging Arrangements. Also shows arrangement 
of coke and iron charges. 



charging door, subsequent charges are added as the bed settles, 
due to iron being withdrawn through the tap-hole and the coke 
burning away. If heavy scrap is used it is generally charged 



254 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

with the second lot of iron, a little coke being mixed with it to 
assist in its rapid melting. 

A certain amount of slag is required in cupolas to prevent 
the iron from being burned away by the action of the blast. 
It is also necessary to prevent the molten iron in the basin from 
being decarbonized. Frequently the coke will contain suffi- 
cient impurities to form slag enough to protect the iron, but 
with clean iron and fuel slag will not form in sufficient quanti- 
ties in small heats. It is therefore necessary to introduce a 
material to form slag; and limestone, marble dust or fluor-spar, 
or any other material containing lime, should be charged with 
the iron, commencing at about the fifth charge and using 
approximately sixty pounds of limestone per ton of iron. The 
particular amount, however, depends on local conditions, being 
governed by the analysis of the fuel and iron and also by its 
effect on the lining. Sufficient slagging material must be 
added to insure the slag being sharply fluid, and yet any excess 
of limestone will attack the fire-brick lining of the cupola and 
will also influence to a certain extent the quality of the iron 
melted. If marble dust is used, six pounds per ton of iron will 
usually give a good slag of sufficient quantity. 

Certain foundrymen do not slag their cupolas, these being 
larger than are necessary to give the amount of iron needed at 
any one time. However, if the cupola is to be driven to the 
limit of its capacity, slagging is absolutely essential. If the 
quantity of slag formed is not too great, it may be allowed to 
remain in the cupola until the end of the heat. As it rests on 
top of the iron in the basin none of it will run out of the tap- 
hole unless the level of the iron is lowered to below the upper 
edge of the tap-hole. However, if it is necessary to use a 
considerable quantity of slagging material, provision must be 
made to remove it through the slag-hole continuously. If 
allowed to accumulate, it may bridge or scaffold above the 
tuyeres and give trouble in the operation of the cupola. 

The cupola being charged, it will be well to allow it to 
stand for about half an hour before the blast is put on. The 
lower charges will then be heated to such an extent that when 



THE CUPOLA AND ITS OPERATION 255 

the blast is put on melting begins rapidly and evenly and con- 
tinues at a uniform rate throughout the heat. The blast 
being put on, iron shortly begins to run sluggishly from the tap- 
hole which has been left open. It becomes hotter and hotter 
until finally it is perfectly fluid. The melter then closes the tap- 
hole with a hod of fire-clay and allows the iron to accumulate 
in the basin until there is a sufficient quantity to pour the first 
lot of molds. Should the tap-hole be closed as soon as the iron 
began to flow, the iron might cool in the bottom of the cupola 
and harden in front of the tap-hole, making it extremely diffi- 
cult to tap the cupola later. In tapping the cupola care must 
be taken that the tap-hole be kept free of slag and iron, and 
also that while boding up, or closing the tap-hole with clay, 
parts of each bod are not left around the tap-hole each time, 
thus building it out from the breast. If this care is not 
taken, it will eventually become difficult or impossible to bod 
up the cupola, and the iron will run out until the cupola is 
empty. 

The clay to form the bods for the tap-hole should be one 
that will not bake too hard, else it will require a tapping bar and 
a sledge to drive the bod out of the hole when it is desired to 
tap the cupola. The clay used should be one that will bake 
hard enough to hold the iron, yet one which will break com- 
paratively easily. If the clay alone bakes too hard, white-pine 
sawdust, seacoal, or similar material may be added to it. The 
tapping-bar must be kept clean and pointed, which can be 
accomplished by holding the end in the stream of iron flowing 
from the cupola. Before making the hole in the breast, the 
clay on the breast around the bod should be slightly cleaned 
with the point of the tap-rod, which will prevent trouble due 
to the bods building out on the breast. In closing the tap-hole 
the rod with the bod of clay on the end should be held above 
the stream of iron, and the bod forced down. If it is attempted 
to force the bod up through the iron, it is liable to be washed 
from the rod, which may cause serious trouble before it can 
be replaced. 

After the cupola is in operation, the pouring-spout should 



256 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

be obeerved closely to ascertain when it is necessary to open 
the slag-hole. When nearly all the iron has run from the basin 
during a given tap, a small quantity of slag may appear on 
the surface of the iron as it flows down the spout. This is 
evidence that by the time the basin has filled with iron for the 
next tap a considerable quantity of slag will have accumulated 
on top of the iron. Shortly before the next tap, therefore, the 
slag-hole, which has been closed with a bod of molding sand and 
molasses water, is opened and the slag permitted to escape. 
After the slag has once commenced to run freely, the slag-hole 
will take care of itself, the slag rising on top of the iron as it 
collects in the basin, and flowing out through the slag-hole 
whenever it rises to that level. 

It is customary to charge a few hundred pounds more of 
iron into the cupola than are required to pour all the molds, 
as the last iron out of the cupola always has more or less slag 
on it, which would render defective castings which later must 
be machined. Consequently the last castings to be poured 
should be those of a rough character requiring no machining. 
If all the castings are to be of a good character the iron cannot 
be totally drained from the cupola for them and the last few 
hundred pounds are run into ingot molds or pig beds. When 
all the iron has been drained from the cupola, the spud is 
knocked from beneath the bottom doors or pulled out by 
means of a compressed air attachment, and the coke in the 
cupola falls to the floor. In most large foundries a series of 
iron hooks are placed under the cupola, points upward, so that 
the mass of coke may be pulled from under the cupola by means 
of a chain and a compressed air hoist, thus tearing the mass 
apart and distributing it so that it can be readily quenched 
by a stream from a hose and considerable coke thereby saved. 
It is absolutely essential that the spot on which the mass from 
the cupola drops be perfectly dry. Otherwise there will be a 
generation of steam which in expanding will throw the red-hot 
coke in all directions, burning the workmen and doing damage 
to the building. Occasionally, when the drop takes place, 
all the material above the tuyeres does not come with it, being 



THE CUPOLA AND ITS OPERATION 257 

scaffolded in the cupola. However, as the coke burns away 
during the night this material will fall, although occasionally 
it has to be poked down by means of bars inserted through the 
peep-holes in the tuyeres or broken down by pigs of iron thrown 
through the charging door. This latter occurrence happens 
most often when the cupola is not slagged. 

The following day the lining of the cupola should be in- 
spected and repaired before it is charged for that day's run. 
Cupolas are built with either a single or double lining, the first 
consisting of a lining of heavy cupola blocks of fire-brick, the 
second of two rOws of fire-brick one inside the other. The 
advantage of the double lining is that it is considered to give 
greater protection to the shell, while the single lining permits 
refining to be accomplished more quickly than does the double 
lining. It, however, requires more careful watching than the 
other and may, if not attended to, break through at a time 
when the cupola is in operation, which will be evidenced by the 
shell becoming red hot opposite the hole in the lining. If 
possible, this spot should be cooled by a plentiful application 
of cold water to the shell and the cupola kept in operation until 
the heat is finished. However, if the red spot shows a ten- 
dency to enlarge, the blast should be shut off and the bottom 
dropped. It is sometimes possible to repair temporarily a 
break in the lining while the cupola is in operation by throwing 
in fire-brick and fire-clay mud through the charging door im- 
mediately above the place where the hot spot shows. These 
will fuse and find their way into the break and repair it suffi- 
ciently to finish the heat. Wetting down of the shell should 
continue nevertheless until the heat is ended. 

The care of the lining and the method of charging have 
much to do with the life of the cupola. The fact that the lining 
burns out rapidly is not necessarily an indictment against the 
brick of which it is composed, but may indicate lack of care on 
the part of the melter. In lining the cupola for the first time, 
a space of about five-eighths inch should be left between the 
back of the brick and the shell of the cupola, and grouting — 
a thick claywash — poured in behind them. The fire-brick 
17 



258 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

composing the lining are set in a thick claywash, termed butter. 
The brick should be laid as closely together as possible and the 
rows buttered together. The brick are grouted at the back to 
avoid chipping where they come against rivets in the shell, and 
they must be carefully fitted around the tuyeres and lining 
shelves. Otherwise they are laid up in regular rows, with broken 
joints. The lining below the level of the charging door is 
considerably thicker than it is above, as this portion of it not 
only has to resist the more intense heat but also the abrasion 
of the fuel and iron. Frequently the lining above the charging 
door is composed simply of common red brick of good quality. 
After the lining is completed it should be thoroughly dried out 
by a fire built in the bottom of the cupola. 

A lining built as above must be repaired after each heat 
with a mud composed of sand and clay wet with water, 
all foreign matter which may be clinging to the lining being 
first removed with a pick or chisel, care being taken not to 
break away the surface of the lining if it can be avoided. The 
mud is applied by throwing it in handfuls against worn spots 
in the lining and afterward smoothing it with a trowel so as 
to conform as closely as possible with the original shape of the 
lining. The slag-hole is formed by placing a gate-stick at the 
proper point and daubing mud around it, afterward removing 
the stick and filling the opening with a mixture of sand and 
molasses water. The cupola lining will require but little re- 
pairing during the first few heats, but after a long period of 
operation holes of considerable size may be burned in it and 
these should be filled with small pieces of fire-brick and the mud 
laid in around them. The space to be repaired in a cupola 
usually extends some three or four feet above the tuyeres as 
shown in Fig. 142, and also in Fig. 144, the latter illustrating 
the method of making certain classes of repairs. When the 
variety of clay available for lining repairs is of poor quality, 
a large quantity of sand of high fusion should be mixed with 
it to render it more refractory. If the fusing point of the clay 
is low, the mud repair may melt and run down and choke the 
tuyeres as shown in Fig. 144. Again, the daubing may become 



THE CUPOLA AND ITS OPERATION 



259 



broken away and permit the charge to enter in back of it as 
shown in the same illustration, finally breaking the lining away 
and scaffolding the cupola. When this occurs the iron melts 
slowly, as the charge cannot work its way down to the melting 
zone and it is necessary to drop the bottom and thus lose the 






^ 




fe 












ifiiiH 






t 


SDCTD 


i 



LINING MELTING, AND LINING CRACKING AWAY k'"* 

RUNNING DOWN OVER FROM BRICK. COKE FOLLOWING PROPER WAY TO REPAIR BADLY 

IN BETWEEN, AND BURNED LINING. 

THROWING CHARGES. 



TUYERES 



Fig. 144. — Failures of Cupola Linings and Correct and Incorrect 
Methods of Making Repairs. 



heat. The proper method of making extensive repairs to the 
lining is also shown in this illustration. 

A great deal of useful information regarding the operation 
of the cupola is given by Bradley Stoughton in an article in 
The Foundry in October, 1907. Mr. Stoughton divides the 
cupola into four zones : (i) The crucible zone or hearth extend- 
ing from the bottom of the cupola to the tuyeres. (2) The tuyere 
7one where the blast comes in contact with and burns the 
red-hot coke. This is the zone of combustion. Its upper 
limit depends on the blast pressure, and the higher the pres- 
sure the greater will be the height of the zone. The top of the 
zone should never be allowed to go 15 to 24 inches above the 
tuyeres. (3) The melting zone where all melting takes place. 
It is situated immediately above the tuyere zone and the lower 
part of it overlaps the latter. Iron of the charge should begin 
to melt as soon as it enters the melting zone and should finish 
melting at a point about seven inches lower down, the iron 
and coke sinking as the latter burns away. Each charge of 
iron should enter the melting zone just before the last previous 
charge is completely melted at the bottom. (4) The stack ex- 



260 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

tending from the melting zone to the level of the charging door. 
Its function is to contain the material, permitting it to absorb 
heat and thus prepare itself for the action at the lower level. 

The blast pressure should depend on the size of the cupola, 
but present practice favors a pressure of not over one pound 
per square inch, diminishing to one-half pound in the smaller 
sizes of cupolas. As one pound of coke requires about sixty 
cubic feet of air for burning it, the size of the blower necessary 
may be calculated. Makers of blowers advocate pressures 
and volumes too high for good cupola practice. If the pressures 
and volumes advocated by them are adopted unqualifiedly, 
the melting zone will be raised and the iron oxidized, due to its 
greater drop to the hearth through the incoming blast. 

Melting should begin within fifteen minutes of the time 
that the blast is put on. If it takes longer than this the bed 
charge of coke has been made too high and coke is wasted. 
The first layer of iron should be completely melted in eight to 
ten minutes. The thickness of the various layers of coke should 
be such that the next layer of iron should enter the melting 
zone just as the previous one is melted. If the layers of coke 
are made thicker than this, coke is wasted. If the iron layer 
is too thick the last of the layer will melt near the tuyeres and 
will oxidize excessively and be cold. The fact that the iron 
layers are too thick may be noted by the iron running first hot 
and then cold from the cupola spout. 

It is important to watch the flames from the stack. Too 
great a volume of blast is indicated by a "cutting" or oxidizing 
flame, and also by the projection of sparks from the slag-hole. 
If the layers of iron and coke are too thin, there will be two 
charges of iron in the melting zone at one time. This will be 
made evident by the iron flowing more freely from the cupola 
spout at one time than another. If very hot iron is desired 
the coke layers must be made thicker, with a consequent 
diminution in the rate of melting. 

Concerning the absorption of sulphur by the iron from the 
fuel, Mr. Stoughton says that the absorption will range from 
0.020 to 0.035 per cent and that pig-iron with a sulphur con- 



THE CUPOLA AND ITS OPERATION 26l 

tent of 0.08 per cent will give castings in which the sulphur 
will range from o.io to 0.115 per cent. The sulphur will be 
higher in the first iron to come down than in the iron ob- 
tained at the middle of the heat because of the extra amount of 
coke in the bed charge. The iron obtained at the end of the 
heat will also be higher in sulphur because of the greater loss of 
metal at the end of the run due to better oxidizing condi- 
tions and consequently greater concentration of the metal. 
Silicon to the extent of 0.25 to 0.40 per cent may be burned out 
of the iron in its passage through the cupola. An allow- 
ance must be made for this in calculating the character of the 
charge. 

In this same article, Mr. Stoughton published a table of 
comparative cupola practice which is reproduced below. 
Commenting on this table, Mr. Stoughton says that a mixture 
of coal and coke, or an inferior coke gives slow melting and a 
poor fuel ratio. The next striking evidence from the table are 
the figures given by the relation of the tuyere area to the 
speed of melting. If an average iron is melted in cupolas 
whose area is less than 6.56 times the tuyere area, we have 
a melting speed of 22.56 pounds per minute. For lesser 
proportional tuyere areas the figure is 18.57 pounds. Slow 
melting in cupola No. 8 is evidently due to the low height of 
the stack, which caused the iron to reach the melting zone 
before it was sufficiently preheated. A large proportional 
tuyere area means that the blast passes through the tuyeres 
with less resistance and with lower velocity. An important 
figure in the table is the relation between the speed of melting 
and the height of the charging door above the tuyeres, divided 
by the diameter of the cupola. The average melting speed 
where this ratio is over 2.5 is 24.12 pounds per minute. 
When the ratio is under 2.5, the melting speed drops to 19.15 
pounds per minute. An exception to this rule is shown by 
cupolas Nos. 6 and 3. Cupola No. 6 melts faster due to its 
larger proportional tuyere area, while cupola No. 3 melts 
slower due to its lower proportional tuyere area. The average 
speed of melting with cupolas of more than 12 ounces blast 



262 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



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THE CUPOLA AND ITS OPERATION 



263 



pressure is 20.75 pounds per minute, while the rate with less 
than 12 ounces is 21.53. The divergence here is not great 
enough to establish a rule, but it is sufficient to discredit the 
theory that a high blast pressure necessarily gives fast melting. 
This last statement is apparently borne out by an article 
by Mr. W. B. Snow, published in The Foundry in August, 
1908. Mr. Snow gives a table showing the record of capacity 
and the blast pressure of a number of cupolas as follows: 

TABLE XI. — Capacity and Blast Pressure of Cupolas 



Diameter of lining 

in 

Tons per hour 

Pressure, oz. per sq 



44 


44 


47 


49 


54 


S4 


54 


60 


60 


60 


0.7 


7-3 


8.4 


9.1 


7-7 


8.8 


10.2 


12.4 


14.8 


13.8 


12.9 


16.4 


17.5 


II. 8 


13.6 


II.O 


20.8 


IS-S 


16.8 


12.6 



74 
13.0 



8.7 



Mr. Snow says that for a given cupola and blower the 
melting rate increases with the square root of the pressure. 
Thus a cupola which melts nine tons per hour with a pressure 
of 10 ounces will melt about ten tons with a pressure of 
12.5 ounces and 11 tons with 15 ounces. The power re-, 
quired varies as the cube of the melting rate, so for 11 tons 
(11 -^ 9)^ = 1.82 times as much power will be required as 
for 9 tons. Thus large cupolas and blowers using light pres- 
sures have a distinct advantage. 

The ratio of iron to fuel in the cupola is shown by a series 
of tables in the eighth edition of Kent's "Mechanical 
Engineers' Pocket-Book," page 1227, These are taken from 
the charging list of several stove foundries. 



TABLE XII 

Bed of fuel, coke 1 ,500 lb. 

First charge of iron 5,ooo lb. 

All other charges of iron 1,000 lb. 

First and second charges of coke, each 200 lb. 

Four next charges of coke, each 150 lb. 

Six next charges of coke, each 120 lb. 

Nineteen next charges of coke, each 100 lb. 



264 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

Thus for a melt of 18 tons, 5,120 pounds of coke are re- 
quired, giving a melting ratio of 7 to i. If the amount of iron 
melted is increased to 24 tons, the melting ratio of 8 pounds 
of iron to one of coke is obtained. 

TABLE XIII 

Bed of fuel, coke 1,600 lb. 

First charge of iron 1,800 lb. 

First charge of fuel 150 lb. 

All other charges of iron, each 1,000 lb. 

Second and third charges of fuel, each 130 lb. 

All other charges of fuel, each 100 lb. 

For an 18-ton melt, 5,060 pounds of coke are needed, the 
melting ratio thus being 7.1 pounds of iron to one pound of 
coke. 

TABLE XIV 

Bed charge of coke 1,600 lb. 

First charge of iron 4,000 lb. 

First and second charges of coke, each 200 lb. 

All other charges of iron, each 2,000 lb. 

All other charges of coke, each 150 lb. 

Thus 4,100 pounds of coke will be required to melt 18 tons 
of iron, giving a melting ratio of 8.5 to i. 

TABLE XV 

Bed charge of fuel, coke i ,800 lb. 

First charge of iron 5, 600 lb. 

All charges of coke, each 200 lb. 

All charges of iron, each 2,900 lb. 

The melting ratio in a melt of 18 tons is 9.4 pounds of iron 
to one pound of coke, 3,900 pounds of fuel being used. 

TABLE XVI 

Bed of fuel, coal i ,900 lb. 

First charge of iron 5,ooo lb. 

First charge of coal 200 lb. 

All other charges of iron, each 2,000 lb. 

All other charges of coal, each 175 lb. 



THE CUPOLA AND ITS OPERATION 265 

The melting ratio in a melt of 18 tons is 7.7 pounds of iron 
to one pound of coal, 4,700 pounds of coal being used. 

Calculating Cupola Mixtures. — To produce uniformly 
good castings, materials must be uniform and all supplies in- 
cluding pig iron, coke, etc., should be analyzed and their com- 
position determined. By calculating charges which have been 
put into the cupola, and comparing these calculations with 
the analyses of good castings made from these charges, 
melting losses and changes in composition of the iron 
occurring in the cupola, can be ascertained. After the 
melting factor has thus been determined, proper mixtures 
can be made and the cupola can be studied to still further 
improve the quality of its output. What follows in regard 
to this subject is abstracted from a lecture by Dr. Richard 
Moldenke, before the students of the Case School of Applied 
Science. 

If the analysis of a series of good boiler castings shows that 
they should contain about 1.90 per cent silicon, not over 0.05 
per cent sulphur, and not over 0.40 per cent phosphorus, the 
carbon and the manganese being those of normal irons, then 
the mixture must contain the silicon wanted, plus that burned 
out during the melting (about 0.25 per cent). The sulphur 
of the mixture must be at least o.oi per cent lower, as this 
amount is always added by unavoidable contact with the fuel. 
The phosphorus need be but slightly lower, as the melting acts 
somewhat in the way of concentration, the bulk of the heat 
becoming 4 to 7 per cent smaller, which percentage is called 
the melting loss. 

In calculating mixtures we must deal with the following 
elements: Pig iron, scraps of various kinds, the fuel, and the 
limestone flux. The pig iron may have been cast either in the 
sand bed of the blast furnace or in chill molds, and it may be 
either charcoal, coke, or anthracite iron, depending on the fuel 
with which it is smelted. Furthermore, it may be either 
cold-blast or warm-blast charcoal pig iron. The order of ex- 
cellence is from the finest cold-blast charcoal iron down to the 
poorest cinder-made, hot-blast coke iron. Cupola mixtures 



266 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

may contain only one variety or can be built up from twenty- 
three pig-iron ingredients. 

The scrap used may be either made in the foundry or 
bought. The former is simply the bad castings, the gates 
and sprues of previous melts, and we should know all about it. 
The bought scrap, however, will often upset all calculations as 
to quality, when used in too great a quantity. In addition 
we may add steel scrap to strengthen castings and then malle- 
able scrap, wrought-iron scrap, cast-iron borings, steel borings, 
etc. 

The chemical composition is the basis of all preparations 
and mixtures for building up a heat for castings. The prep- 
aration of a mixture begins when the pig iron is received in the 
foundry yard. The metal should be piled in such a way that 
the foundryman may be sure of uniform material when he uses 
it. This is best done by spreading the first car-load of a given 
composition in a long row of pigs. The next car-load goes on 
top of this and so on till the pile is man high. Another pile is 
then commenced. By drawing from the end of the first pile, 
an average of all the car-loads thus stacked is obtained and one 
analysis will do for many car-loads of pig iron. In this way 
one can use specifications to an advantage, for, with a given 
class of work, such as miscellaneous car castings, it is possible 
to specify, say, four grades of iron containing, respectively, 
silicon contents of 1.75, 2.00, 2.25, and 2.50. Of the two 
extremes, but little will be wanted, but the bulk will be 2.25 
silicon iron. Now by placing all car-loads with less than ten 
points of silicon below that required on the next lower pile, 
a satisfactory arrangement is obtained and one can build up 
a mixture at the desk and be sure that it will work out right. 

In general, the more scrap used, the cheaper the mixture, 
but also the greater the melting loss. A good mean is usually 
60 per cent pig and 40 per cent scrap. This is for general 
jobbing castings, as special classes of work often require pig 
iron only. In calculating a mixture, suppose that the limit 
for silicon be 2.15 per cent in the castings, then the 0.25 per 
cent lost in melting added to this will give us a requirement 



THE CUPOLA AND ITS OPERATION 267 

of 2.40 per cent silicon in the mixture. Assume the cupola 
to be charged in 4,000-pound layers of metal with the coke-to- 
iron ratio one to eight. Of these 4,000 pounds of metal which 
should, at 2.40 per cent silicon contain 96 pounds of silicon, 
the pig iron is to form 60 per cent of the charge or 2,400 
pounds, and 40 per cent or 1,600 pounds should be scrap. 
Scrap usually contains less silicon than the castings of the 
particular class from which the scrap originated and, therefore, 
for our purpose, the scrap may be considered to contain 2.00 
per cent silicon, or 32 pounds. The pig iron must contain the 
other 64 pounds and hence must have an approximate silicon 
content of 2.65. This example, which by the way is of soft 
machine castings of medium size, shows that the yard must 
contain irons of higher silicon contents than those given above. 
They should run in this case 2.00, 2.25, 2.50, and 2.75 per cent. 
We note that with pig irons averaging 2.65 per cent silicon 
desired, the mixture will be from irons between the 2.50 and 
the 2.75 limits. A simple trial calculation shows that 2,000 
pounds of the 2.75 mixture and 400 pounds of the 2.50 silicon 
iron will give the proper results. The mixture table is as 
follows : 

1,600 lb. scrap, 2.00 per cent Si 32.0 lb. Si. 

2,000 lb. pig iron, say Warwick, 2.75 per cent Si. . . .55.0 lb. Si. 
400 lb. pig iron, say Clifton, 2.50 per cent Si. . . . 10. o lb. Si. 



4,000 Average 2.40 97.0 

It is advisable to have in the foundry yard a quantity of 
iron containing 4.00 to 5.00 per cent silicon to correct a sudden 
tendency downward of the silicon in the mixture as the result 
of an improper working of the cupola or furnace. This also 
enables us to use lower silicon and therefore cheaper irons 
in the mixture. However, this is not conducive to the best 
results which are obtained by putting into the cupola as nearly 
as possible what is desired to obtain from it. 

In charging steel scrap, this must be selected from boiler- 
plate, structural material, or steel castings if obtainable. It 



268 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

must be neither too thick nor too thin, otherwise an irregular 
melting will result. Twenty-five per cent is a good amount 
to use for very strong work. It can be increased to 40.00 per 
cent if desired, but anything above 25.00 percent will take up 
so much carbon from the fuel that the value as a reducer of 
the total carbon is gone. Where much steel is used, from 2.00 
to 4.00 per cent of ferro-manganese should be put in the ladle, 
as the added steel raises the melting point of the metal and the 
ferro-manganese is able to act as a deoxidizer which is im- 
possible with the low temperatures of ordinary gray iron. 

Sulphur must be kept low or there will be trouble with 
light castings. The calculation of sulphur in a mixture is 
similar to that given above for silicon, but if precautions are 
taken to keep the pig iron low in sulphur, this element need 
not be considered in mixture calculations. Not only do we 
have to contend with sulphur in the iron but also in the fuel. 
From o.oi per cent to 0.07 per cent is added to the iron in 
the cupola, depending on the sulphur in the fuel. It seems 
that only the sulphur which is in the ash of the coke enters 
the iron and especially when the heat is run cold. It is there- 
fore best to use plenty of fuel to get a good hot iron, and most 
of the sulphur will be driven off before it has a chance to com- 
bine with the iron. 

While the importance of silicon and sulphur has been 
specially dealt with, it is their effect on the relations on the 
carbon content of the iron that is really aimed at. Whether 
a piece of iron is gray and soft, gray and hard, mottled or 
white and amenable only to the emery wheel depends to a 
large extent upon the proportion of combined carbon present. 
Thus in 3.3 per cent total carbon of which 0.2 is combined 
and 3.3 per cent is graphitic, the casting is practically a 20-car- 
bon steel, although it is a soft gray-iron casting. If the total 
carbon is diminished to 2.80 per cent with the combined 
carbon the same, we have a much stronger iron, yet one which 
is easily machined. If the combined carbon is increased the 
matrix becomes a tool steel with whatever graphitic carbon 
is present to weaken the metal. This casting, however, is 



THE CUPOLA AND ITS OPERATION 269 

now hard to machine. Increase the combined carbon to the 
full amount of the total carbon, and we have a white iron 
such as is used for rolls, malleable castings, etc., and which 
usually require subsequent treatment to make them service- 
able. The state of the graphitic and combined carbon in the 
casting is the result of several variable conditions. The silicon 
content when above 1.75 per cent makes gray to black 
fractures in a casting, and when below may mak'j fractures 
ranging from light gray to dead white. The Second vari- 
able is the thickness of the casting which cont»"ols the cool- 
ing rate after the metal is poured. Lastly, the tempera <"ure 
of the melt has its effect, a hot pour making a harder iron 
than a cool one. 

The making of a good mixture is not a guarantee that the 
castings will be right, for, after tapping, there are many 
opportunities to spoil good work. The metal may be poured 
too hot or held too long before pouring. The molds may be 
badly vented and the iron may be poured so that it will shot 
or so that slag enters the mold. Hence the necessity of cool- 
ness and good judgment in applying remedies for manifest 
evils lest greater ones result. 

The following method for calculating mixtures for the 
cupola is given in The Foundry, October, 1907: "It is required 
that the analyses of the iron from the cupola be as follows: 
Silicon 1.60 per cent, phosphorus 0.70 per cent, sulphur 
less than o.io per cent, manganese less than 0.50 per cent. 
Previous experience with iron and coke shows, due considera- 
tion being given to local melting conditions, that the approxi- 
mate loss of silicon in the cupola will be 0.25 per cent and of 
manganese o.io per cent, the sulphur increasing at the 
same time 0.03 per cent. The iron and the scrap to be 
charged, therefore, must have an average analysis as follows: 
Silicon 1.85 per cent, phosphorus 0.70 per cent, sulphur less 
than 0.07 per cent, manganese 0.60 per cent. A table 
similar to that given below is then made, showing various 
weights of metal to be charged, the analyses of the different 
metals, and the weight of silicon, sulphur, phosphorus, and 



270 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



manganese contained in a given quantity of each iron. From 
the classes of metal available to form the mixture, selections 
are made of the proper quantity to give the respective amount 
of silicon, sulphur, phosphorus, and manganese necessary to 
give the desired average composition. The weight of each 
element is found by multiplying the percentage of each ele- 
ment in the different classes of material charged by the 
weight of ihat material, and by dividing the total weight of 
each elemen. by the total weight of the material charged, 
the percentage composition of the mixture is determined. 
By making adjustments of the pig iron and scrap, mixtures 
of any desired analysis can be made." 

TABLE XVII. — Material to be Charged and Method of Figuring 



Steel scrap 

Machinery scrap 

High sulphur Southern 

No. IX 

No. 3 foundry 

High siHcon 



Total 

Percentage . 



Lb. 



400 
2,000 
1,600 
1,600 
4,000 



10,400 



Analysis Per cent 



Si S P Mn 



o. 10 
1.70 
0.70 
3 00 
I. 75 
3-50 



0.07 
o. 10 

O. 10 

0.03 
0.07 

0.025 



O. 10 

I .00 

1.50 
0.80 
0.30 
0.07 



0.60 
0.60 
0.30 

1.25 

0.60 
0.60 



Weight of * 



0.40 
34 00 
11.20 
48.00 
70.00 
26.00 



191 .60 



0.28 
2.00 
1.60 
0.48 
2.80 
o. 20 

7.36 
0.071 



P Mn 



0.40 
20.00 
24.00 
12.80 
12.00 

0.56 



69.76 
0.67 



2.40 
12.00 

4.80 
20.00 
14.80 

4.80 
68 . 00 

0.65 



* Multiply the weight of each kind of material by the percentage of the element in it 
and divide total weight of each element by total weight of material. By relative adjustment 
of pig iron and scrap, mixtures for any desired analysis can be made. 



CHAPTER XXV 

THE AIR-FURNACE AND ITS OPERATION 

Instead of the cupola, the air-furnace, more properly 
known as the reverberatory furnace, is used for melting iron 
for foundry practice, especially where malleable castings are 
to be made. The air-furnace has a number of advantages 
over the cupola and also certain disadvantages. These ad- 
vantages may be summed up as follows: It is economical 
of fuel, can be cheaply constructed and easily repaired. It 
may be started at any time from the cold condition and can 
be quickly cooled after use. It requires no expensive auxiliary 
machinery, such as blowers, gas producers, etc. Its principal 
disadvantage is that it consumes a greater length of time to 
melt the same tonnage than the other forms of melting 
apparatus and the metal coming out of it at the end of a heat 
is liable to be burned. The most serious disadvantage is 
that the action of the flame in the furnace is such as to notice- 
ably increase the sulphur content of the iron, an amount of 
0.3 per cent frequently being added when the coal used is 
high in sulphur. Furthermore, metal cannot be long held in 
an air-furnace after it is ready for pouring unless the quality 
required is not of the first importance. This necessarily limits 
the size of the furnace. 

The illustrations. Figs. 145-149, show a typical air-furnace. 
At the extreme front of the furnace is a fire-box G, containing 
grate-bars on which the coal for melting the metal is burned. 
Behind this and separated from it by a bridge wall H, is the 
bath or hearth A. This is built on a stone foundation over 
which are laid two courses of fire-brick, these being covered 
with a thick layer of silica sand to form the hearth. At the 
rear of the bath is another wall forming, with the end of the 
furnace, a down-take leading to a flue which conveys the waste 

271 



272 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

gases to the stack. The roof of the furnace over the fire-box 
is of arch form and slants downward toward the bridge wall 
as shown. The roof over the bath is formed of cast-iron bungs 
constructed, as shown in Fig. 149, of iron castings with the tie 
rods F extending across them, which when the bung is lined 
with fire-brick are tightened to hold the fire-brick in place. 
These bungs may be lifted off the furnace to permit charging, 
which is done by laying the iron on the hearth. Tapping 
spouts are provided in the side of the furnace, as are also 
charging doors through which material may be placed in 
the furnace if desired. The fiames, rising from the fire on 
the grate-bars, are deflected by the sloping roof so that they 
strike and play upon the metal in the hearth, thus melting it 
down to a liquid for pouring. 

The hearth is composed of silica sand which is sintered 
before the furnace is put in operation. Sand is rammed down 
on top of the brick to a depth of about two inches. The 
bungs are then put in place and the furnace fired until the sand 
fuses together. When the first layer has set another layer is 
shoveled in and the operation repeated, the process continuing 
until the hearth is of the necessary thickness, which ranges 
from six to eight inches. The hearth must be so formed that 
the iron will run on it toward the tapping spout. If this is 
not done a hoe must be used to empty all pools left in the bot- 
tom when the furnace is drained. A good mixture of sand 
for the hearth is two parts of silica sand, with a silica content 
of 95 per cent or more, to one part of ground silica rock. 

The shape of the hearth is important, as there may be 
a thin feather of metal around the edge of the hearth, which 
may become badly burned during the course of operations. 
If the bottom is cut away to a certain extent, around the edge 
of the bath, the metal may then be given a thickness of two 
or three inches at this point, which, in connection with the 
slag covering it, will suffice to prevent burning. Three spouts 
at different levels are recommended by Dr. Moldenke in 
order that the iron at the surface of the bath may be tapped 
first and burning thereby avoided. 



THE AIR-FURNACE AND ITS OPERATION 



273 



When preparing the furnace for the day's heat, the bungs 
are removed and the furnace thoroughly cleaned out. If the 
sand below the hearth has been injured, it is re-formed and 
repaired, this being done while the furnace is hot so that the 
new sand will bake on the old. The hearth is then made up 




sectional elevation 
Figs. 145-149. — Typical Air-Furnace. 



with a mixture of fire-sand and red clay. Red clay should 
be used sparingly, as it has a tendency to crack in drying, per- 
mitting the iron to flow down underneath the surface and 
float the bottom up. In charging the furnace, sprues are 
usually placed on the hearth first, being spread evenly over 
the bottom. Over them the pig-iron is piled, half the charge 
18 



274 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

at each end of the furnace. This method of charging permits 
the iron to melt gradually, which would not occur were all the 
metal to be thrown in promiscuously and the charge would 
require perhaps an hour longer to melt it. 

Westmoreland County (Pa.) coal is advised for firing an 
air-furnace. The best practice gives about four pounds of 
iron melted for every pound of fuel burned. 

As the melting proceeds, test-plugs are made by pouring 
metal into the molds, formed with a plug one inch in diameter. 
These plugs are broken and the fracture examined. If there 
is a mottled appearance to the fracture or if black specks 
appear in it, the graphitic carbon is too high and must be 
reduced by holding the metal in the furnace longer. The 
mottled appearance indicates that the silicon in the metal 
in the furnace is too high or that the temperature of the furnace 
is too low. The charge should be ready for pouring about 
four hours after charging is complete. 

The principal use of the air-furnace is making iron for 
malleable castings. For this purpose a sharp, white iron is 
required, which, after casting, is annealed in proper annealing 
ovens. The molding of malleable castings is carried on in 
practically the same manner as for gray-iron castings, with 
the exception that the gating is so arranged that the mold will 
fill quickly, as white iron does not remain fluid as long as gray 
iron. Instead of providing risers over heavy portions of malle- 
able castings, as is done in gray-iron work, a chill is often set 
against the heavy part. The iron cools quickly against the 
chill, and the light and heavy portions of the casting cool at 
about the same time. This eliminates strains and gives a 
clean sound casting. 

The subject of malleable castings is too wide and com- 
plicated to be treated in detail in a book of this character. 
The reader is referred to "The Production of Malleable 
Castings," ^ by Dr. Richard Moldenke, which is the most 
complete work on this subject and goes into every detail of 
malleable practice. 

^The Penton Publishing Co., Cleveland. 



CHAPTER XXVI 

THE BRASS FOUNDRY 

Connected with many manufacturing establishments are 
brass foundries in which are made castings from the non- 
ferrous metals, such as bronze, brass, aluminum, etc. The 
molding operations are carried on in practically the same man- 
ner as for gray iron, finer sand, however, being used. The 
metal being poured at a lower temperature than iron does not 
destroy the sand as iron does. The larger castings in brass 
are molded in dry sand and in loam exactly as is done for iron. 
As the shrinkage of the non-ferrous metals and alloys is greater 
than that of iron, more attention must be given to provisions 
for allowing the shrinkage of the casting in the mold and also 
larger shrinkheads must be provided than is usual with iron 
castings. The pouring temperature of the metal has an 
important influence on the character of the finished casting. 
Very hot metal will find its way into the pores of the sand and 
produce a rough casting. The temperature at pouring should 
be so low as to barely permit the metal to flow and yet produce 
a smooth casting. This temperature in turn depends largely 
on the composition of the alloys. 

Instead of melting in a cupola, the metal in the brass 
foundry is melted in a crucible or a reverberatory furnace, the 
latter using coal, coke, oil, or gas for fuel. The crucibles for 
melting brass, or similar non-ferrous compositions, are made of 
clay and graphite, the crucible being formed and then baked 
to calcine the clay. Before using, the crucibles should be 
seasoned by allowing them to stand in a warm dry place for a 
considerable period, after which they are gradually heated up 
to a temperature of 255° Fahr. in an annealing oven, remaining 
in the oven from 45 to 60 hours. 

In Fig. 150 is shown one of the older types of coal-fired 

275 



276 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



crucible furnace. This is set in the brick-pit ^, and is carried 
on grate-bearers as shown. The coal or coke is placed inside 
the fire-brick lining and the crucible E bedded in it. The 
furnace is set with its top practically flush with the floor and 
it is connected at the upper end with a flue G. In commencing 




Fig. 150. — Crucible Brass Furnace. 



operations with this furnace, a good bed of coal is placed on 
the grate, over which the crucible is set while the coal is being 
fired in order that it may heat up gradually. Copper ingots, 
or ingots of other metal which it may be desired to melt, are 
placed in the crucible, being so arranged that they will not 
wedge with each other, and in expanding crack the crucible. 
After the copper has melted, the metal requiring the next 
lower degree of heat is added, and after this is melted the other 



THE BRASS FOUNDRY 277 

metals to form the alloy are placed in the crucible. When 
the mixture is entirely melted, the crucible is lifted from the 
furnace by means of a special pair of tongs which encircle the 
crucible and the metal is skimmed with a birch-rod or a 
wrought-iron skimmer. For pouring, the crucibles are carried 
in a wrought-iron shank and care should be taken that the 




Fig. 151. — The Open-flame Furnace. 

crucible be completely emptied of metal, otherwise it will 
be badly damaged. 

In place of the coal-fired crucible furnace just described, 
open-flame furnaces illustrated in Fig. 151 are in wide use. Oil 
and air are admitted through the trunnions at a pressure of 
about 65 pounds per square inch. The flame from the oil 
plays directly on the metal in the furnace. Open-flame fur- 
naces have the disadvantage of causing large losses of metal 
through oxidation unless great care is taken in the control of 
the furnaces. A further development of the oil- or gas-fired 
furnace is shown in Fig. 152. This furnace is known as the 
crucible-tilting furnace, the rnetal being melted in a crucible 
set in the fire-brick chamber forming the furnace proper and 



278 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



flames from the oil or gas playing around the furnace as 
shown. The metal is thus protected from the oxidizing effect 
of the flame, and the melting loss, with proper regulation of 
the furnace, is low. 

The pouring temperature of alloys used in the brass foundry 
being low, the metal should be poured in the molds as promptly 
as possible after melting. The castings, on removal from the 
sand, are cleaned by pickling. 

The brass foundry requires a book in itself for its proper 




Fig. 152. — The Crucible-Tilting Furnace. 



treatment. No small part of such a book would be given over 
to the composition of alloys and the mixtures for making them. 
Every brass founder has his own ideas on these mixtures and 
their number is legion. The writer has successfully used the 
mixtures given below for the purposes mentioned. For a very 
complete treatise on this subject see "Practical Alloying,"' 

'The Penton Publishing Co., Cleveland. 



THE BRASS FOUNDRY 279 

by J. F. Buchanan. See also tables in the Appendix, pages 
315 to 317. 

Alloy for stationary engine work: ingot copper, 9 pounds; 
tin, I pound; zinc, i ounce. 

Composition for heavy work: ingot copper, 46 pounds; 
tin, 7 pounds; spelter, 3 pounds; lead, 1% ounces. 

A tough yellow metal: copper, 12 pounds; spelter, 4 
pounds; lead, ^4 pound; tin, ^ pound. 

Another yellow metal : copper, 20 pounds; zinc, 8 pounds; 
lead, I pound. 

Babbitt metal for heavy bearings: copper, 2 pounds; 
antimony, 2 pounds; tin, 72 pounds. 

Hardening metal for heavy bearings : tin, 2 pounds; used 
with I pound of a mixture of the following proportion : copper, 
12; antimony, 24; tin, 27. 

A hard bronze: copper, 88; tin, 6; zinc, 4; lead, 2; phos- 
phor-tin, 2. 

Gun-metal: copper, 44; tin, 4; lead, i; phosphor-tin, i. 

Gun-metal: copper, 88; tin, 8; zinc, 4; lead, 2. 

Phosphor-bronze: copper, 88; tin, 7; zinc, 4; lead, 2; 
phosphor-tin, i. ^ 

Phosphor-bronze, medium hardened: copper, 100; zinc, 
12; tin, 4; lead, i>^. 

Yellow brass: copper, 4; zinc, i; lead, ^. 



CHAPTER XXVII 

FOUNDRY EQUIPMENT 

Ladles. — A variety of ladles for transferring the molten 
iron from the melting furnace to the molds is used in the foun- 
dry, ranging in size from the small hand-ladle holding twenty- 
five pounds of iron to ladles containing as much as fifty tons 
which are used in steel and heavy iron foundries and are 
handled by the crane. Smaller ladles are made of cast-iron 
with lugs to which handles are fitted, while the larger ones 
are constructed of steel plates riveted together and provided 
with trunnions by means of which they are suspended from the 
crane. The ladles of all sizes are lined with fire-clay of the 
same grade as is used to line the cupola to protect the bottom 
and sides from the molten iron. The smaller hand-ladles are 
of such size that they may be carried by a single molder and are 
used for pouring the lighter castings made in bench molds and 
also for feeding risers and shrinkheads in castings which 
require churning or pumping. The next larger size of ladle 
is known as the double-shank ladle and is carried and poured 
by two men. Larger ladles than these are used either for 
pouring heavy castings or for transporting large amounts of 
iron to central points in the foundry whence the iron is con- 
veyed in hand or double-shank ladles to the molds. These 
ladles are handled by means of tramways or cranes. The 
largest-size ladles holding upward of one ton are handled 
exclusively by cranes and are usually lined with fire-brick 
ever which fire-clay is daubed. Before using, the ladle should 
be thoroughly dried and heated either by means of an oil- 
torch or a fire built in it. Any moisture in the lining will 
become steam when the molten metal is poured into it, and 
start an agitation in the metal which may seriously damage 
the lining and permit the molten metal to come in contact with 

280 



FOUNDRY EQUIPMENT 28 1 

the metal of the ladle, thus burning a hole through it and allow- 
ing the molten metal to escape and do serious damage. Most 
ladles used in the foundry pour over the lip, but for steel 
castings an opening is provided in the bottom of the ladle, 
closed by a suitable plug which is removed when the mold is 
to be poured and the steel is taken from the bottom of the 
ladle. Occasionally the lip of the ladle is made higher than the 
rest of the rim and a hole is cut through it through which the 
iron is poured. The lip thus acts as a skimmer and prevents 
slag from flowing with the iron into the mold. When filling 
large ladles the iron is covered with charcoal or some refractory 
material to exclude the air and thus prevent oxidation. 

Flasks. — Flasks for use in the foundry are made either of 
iron or wood. Wooden flasks should be made of substantial 
material, as they are liable to burning and in a short time if 
made too light will be completely burned away at the joint 
and run-outs of the mold will be frequent. For very heavy 
castings, iron flasks are more generally used and these are 
made so far as possible so that the different parts will be 
interchangeable with one another. Thus the pin-holes are 
bored in the flanges to a template and the pins are located by 
the same template. Thus any number of flasks of the same 
size can be piled one on the other to form cheeks and copes. 
The ends are usually made so that different flasks can be 
butted one to another and a long flask thus formed. For 
side-floor work, the flasks are usually made to conform to the 
shape of the pattern, thus diminishing the amount of sand 
rammed in the flask and making it lighter for the molder to 
handle. Large iron flasks should be provided with slotted 
holes in the sides through which bolts may be passed to hold 
bars in place. By this means the bars can be arranged as 
desired to suit the necessities of the pattern in hand. Iron 
flasks should be made sufficiently heavy to prevent springing 
under the pressure of the metal in the mold. It is a mistaken 
idea that because a flask is of iron there is no spring to it. 
However, it is not necessary to make the sides of the flask of 
uniform thickness to resist the tendency to spring; ribs cast 



282 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

on the sides will serve the purpose just as well and make a 
lighter construction. Trunnions should be made preferably 
of steel cast into the sides of the flask rather than of cast-iron 
cast in one piece with the flask. The flask should always be 
of such size that there is ample sand between it and the pat- 
tern, not only to protect the flask from the molten iron, but 
to absorb the gases given ofif in pouring. In many cases when 
iron flasks are made, lugs are arranged on each end of the cope 
and drag so that they will come in line with each other. Holes 
are bored in these lugs and a rod run through them to form 
a guide for lifting the cope over high parts of the pattern. 
Steel flasks are coming into use, being light and serviceable, 
but on account of their lightness they heat rapidly and may 
warp out of shape, in which case it is difficult to restore them 
to their original form. I-beams are also frequently used to 
form the sides of the flask. Flasks for molding-machine work 
are frequently of iron, although for small castings the wooden 
snap flasks, of which there are a number of varieties on the 
market, are in general use. It is advisable to plane the edges 
of iron flasks where good work is expected and the pins should 
be carefully fitted. 

Tumbling Barrels. — Tumbling barrels are made in a 
variety of shapes and sizes. The square tumbling barrel, or 
rattler, is convenient for a number of varieties of castings and 
is often made of cast-iron with cast-iron heads and provided 
with cast-iron stays extending from end to end. Rattlers 
are often made with the sides in sixteen or more segments, 
any one of which may be replaced when worn out or broken. 
They are often combined with a sand-blast arrangement 
whereby sand is blown under air pressure into the rattler 
through one of the trunnions to assist in cleaning the casting. 
Often rattlers are made with wooden staves supported -by iron 
stays on the outside, or the iron rattler may be lined with 
wood. Exhaust-pipes should be connected to each rattler 
through which a fan may remove the dust incident to their 
use. A very popular form of tumbling barrel for small cast- 
ings is the open tilting tumbling barrel, which may be tilted 



FOUNDRY EQUIPMENT 



283 




Fig. 153. — Foundry Rigs. 



284 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

to discharge the tumbled castings and elevated to an inclined 
position for rattling. A stream of water is directed into this 
barrel while in use in order to prevent dust. 

Cranes. — Up to comparatively recent times, the jib-crane 
operated by a hand-winch was almost exclusively used in iron- 
foundries. These were extremely limited in their application 
and were useless beyond a circle of which the crane arm formed 
the radius. In the more modern foundries they have been 
largely displaced by the traveling crane, either hand or 
electric, depending on the weight and amount of work done. 
The most important feature in an electric crane for foundry 
use, aside from its ability to carry the maximum weight of 
casting made in the foundry, is its control apparatus. This 
must be such as to permit very gradual starting and stopping, 
and of operation at extremely low speeds. In drawing large 
patterns from the molds by means of the crane, they must be 
started gradually and slowly. Too quick a start will break 
the mold. Also, in rolling over copes of large sizes, a sudden 
start will shake the sand out of the mold and, in lifting, the 
operator must be able to stop the crane the moment that the 
cope is vertical and before it has swung clear of its support 
on the opposite edge. Furthermore, exact control must be 
maintained over the crane when pouring castings from a 
crane ladle. The molder must be able to tilt the ladle 
continuously to maintain a uniform stream of iron into the 
mold and to stop instantly when the mold is full. This 
requires the co-operation of the crane operator. Instead of 
cranes, traveling electric hoists may be used and the same 
considerations apply to them as to cranes. It would be out 
of place here to discuss the relative features of different cranes 
and the reader is referred to the catalogues of manufacturers 
for such information. 

Foundry Rigs. — The foundry requires a miscellaneous 
equipment of small rigging for handling flasks, ladles, etc., 
for setting cores and securing molds for pouring. A variety 
of this equipment is illustrated in Figs. 153 and 154. A is 
a yoke and B is one of the slings used with it for handling copes 



FOUNDRY EQUIPMENT 



285 





END VIEW. OF 
REVOLVING GAGGEfl BOARD 



Fig. 154. — Foundry Rigs. 



286 ■ FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

and drags by means of the crane. The yoke is made of a solid 
timber suspended at the center by means of iron straps and an 
eye. Occasionally the yoke is made of iron or a section of an 
I-beam. Instead of the yoke, the spreader C is used in con- 
nection with a double strand chain which is hooked on to the 
trunnions of a flask, the spreader being placed above the flask 
at the right height with the chain links in the slots of the 
spreader. If trunnions are not cast on the flask, loose trun- 
nions D may be bolted to it. These may be used with 
wooden or iron flasks. The casting E is usually bolted to 
the sides of the cope to permit chains to be hooked to it for 
hoisting the cope off and to act as rockers on which the flask 
may be rolled over after it has been set on the floor. F \s a. 
form ol staple which is frequently bolted to the flask for the 
purpose of accommodating crane chains, while G is a similar 
staple made of steel around which an iron plate is cast. H 
is a hook bolted to the sides of a cope on which the crane 
chains are fastened when only a straight lift is desired. / 
is a loop forged from steel, usually made in sets of four, to 
place over each handle of a cope, when it is necessary to lift 
it by means of a crane and it is not desired to use any of the 
attachments previously noted. These loops are frequently 
used to slip over the arbors of cores when the latter project 
beyond the mold, and form a very convenient means of 
handling such cores. / is a convenient roller for nailing to 
the side of a wooden flask to act as a rocker in rolling it over. 
K'ls 2i convenient S-hook for handling copes, connecting short 
chains, setting cores, and removing castings from the molds. 
L is a core-hook for setting cores, and may be made in many 
styles and sizes. Chains should be made with a link large 
enough to take the hook of the chain, set back a certain dis- 
tance from the end. The chain can then be doubled back on 
itself with the hook in this link and used as a sling. In 
handling medium-sized work, one or two chains having 
turnbuckles in them will save considerable time in adjusting 
for any given lift. 

Straight-edges of various lengths with holes bored in them 



FOUNDRY EQUIPMENT 287 

SO that they can be hung up when not in use are serviceable 
tools to have in the foundry. A gagger-board is a useful piece 
of equipment for molding gaggers. A bed of molding sand is 
spread as nearly level as possible and the gaggers arranged 
on a board are pressed down into this bed and the board 
leveled with a spirit-level. On lifting the board a series of 
gagger-molds are left in the sand, which may be filled with 
molten iron and the gaggers formed. In Fig. 154 a revolving 
gagger-board is shown at M. The drum is molded plain and 
slab-cores forming the gagger-molds are set on the faces. As 
fast as one side is poured the drum is revolved and the next 
side brought to the top and poured. N is an ingot mold with- 
out a bottom in which slack iron from the hand-ladles is 
poured. It is set in loose sand, placed on the floor, and when 
filled with slack iron is picked up and moved to a new loca- 
tion. is a larger ingot mold for receiving slack iron and 
also the iron from the cupola at the end of the heat. P is a 
cross used for hoisting portions of a mold such as the center 
of the loam mold described in Chapter XI, and Q is one of 
four slings used with this cross, i? is a finger for attaching 
sweeps to a spindle, and 5 is a straight-edge used by loam 
molders, the notch in the center being fitted around the 
spindle. 



GLOSSARY 

Air-furnace — A furnace for melting iron, principally used 
in malleable practice; see reverberatory furnace. 

Arbor — A bar or mandrel used as the center on which is 
built up a core. 

Anneal — To soften or render ductile a casting by the applica- 
tion of heat in connection with a carbonaceous material 
packed around it. The final process in malleable work. 

Baked Core — A dry-sand core which has been subjected to 
heat, usually in an oven, to render it hard and to fix its 
shape: the opposite of green core. 

Bars— Ribs placed across the cope portion of a flask. 

Basin — The portion of a cupola below the tuyeres in which 
the molten iron collects. 

Bath — The iron on the hearth of an air-furnace. 

Bead Slicker — A tool for finishing a hollow place in a mold. 

Bed Charge — The first coke charged into a cupola. 

Bellows — An ordinary small bellows used for blowing sand 
from the joint of a mold, and for blowing it from deep 
pockets in the mold. 

Bench — The framework table at which small molds are made. 

Bench Work — Molds of such small size that they can be 
made at the molder's bench. 

Binder — A bar of wood or iron, with slotted ends to receive 
bolts, placed across a cope to hold the cope on the drag. 

Black Sand — Heap sand. 

Blast — The supply of air to a cupola. 

Bod — A ball of clay for closing the tap-hole. 

Bosh — See swah. 

Bottom-board — A board placed on the under side of a mold. 

Break-out — A rupture of a mold permitting metal to flow 
out at the joint. Also called run-out. 

288 



GLOSSARY 289 

Breast — The portion of the Hning of a cupola immediately 
surrounding the tap-hole. 

Bricks, Fire — Bricks made of fire-clay used for cupola and 
air-furnace lining. 

Bricks, Loam — Bricks formed of a loam mixture, to set in a 
mold and to permit the easy crushing of the mold under 
the shrinkage of the casting. 

Brush — A brush used for sweeping sand from the joint of 
molds. 

Buckles — Swellings in the surface of a mold due to the genera- 
tion of steam, below the surface, which cannot escape. 

Bung — A section of roof of an air-furnace. 

Butt — The large round end of a rammer. 

Calipers — A measuring tool for ascertaining the outside 
diameter of cylindrical bodies. 

Camel's-hair Brush — A brush for applying blacking to the 
surface of molds. 

Carrying Plates — Iron plates used to support certain por- 
tions of loam molds. 

Casting — The product of the foundry obtained by pouring 
molten metal into a mold. 

Cementite — -The constituent of commercial iron consisting 
of iron chemically combined with carbon. 

Chaplet — A piece of metal, shaped in various ways, placed in 
a mold to support a core. 

Charge — The iron and fuel placed in a cupola or air-furnace. 

Charging Door — The opening in a cupola or air-furnace 
through which fuel and metal are introduced. 

Cheek — The portion of a mold, made in three parts, inter- 
mediate between the cope and drag. 

Chill — An iron surface, sometimes water-cooled, of a mold, 
used to chill the molten iron rapidly and thus produce a 
hard surface on the casting. 

Chilled Work — Castings made in a chill mold. 

Chuck — Small bars set between the cross bars of a flask. 

Churning — See pumping. 

Clamping Bar — A bar used to tighten clamps on a flask. 
19 



290 GLOSSARY 

Clamps — Devices for fastening copes and drags together, 

Claywash — A wash formed of clay dissolved in water. 

Cold Shut — An imperfection in a casting due to the metal 
entering the mold by different sprues, and cooling, fail- 
ing to unite on meeting. 

Cope — The upper half of a mold. 

Cope Down — To build projecting bodies of sand on the sur- 
face of the cope to form surfaces of the casting which are 
below the level of the joint of the drag. 

Cope Plate — An iron plate used to support certain portions 
of loam molds. 

Core — A body of sand, either green or dry, placed in a mold 
to form a cavity in the casting. 

Core Box — A box in which cores are formed. 

Core Plate — A fiat iron plate on which green cores are placed 
for baking. 

Core-print — The cavity in a mold in which the ends of cores 
are set. Also the projections on a pattern which form 
and locate the prints in the mold. 

Corner Tool — A tool for slicking the corner of a mold, in- 
accessible to the ordinary form of finishing tools. 

Crucible Zone — The basin of a cupola. 

Cupola — A shaft furnace for the melting of iron; the iron 
and fuel being charged in alternate layers, and com- 
bustion promoted by air blown in at the bottom of 
the furnace. 

Double-ender — A molding tool consisting of a combined 
slicker and spoon-slicker. 

Draft — The taper given to the sides of a pattern to enable 
it to be easily withdrawn from the mold. 

Drag — The lower half of the mold. 

Drawing the Pattern — Lifting a pattern from the sand of a 
completed mold. 

Draw-nail — A pointed rod of iron or steel driven into a 
wooden pattern to act as a handle to withdraw it from the 
sand in a mold. 

Drawpeg — A draw-screw. 



GLOSSARY 291 

Draw-screw — A rod screwed into a pattern to act as a handle 

for drawing the pattern. 
Draw-spike — See draw-nail. 
Dryer — A metal form, of the same shape as a core, in which 

the latter is placed while being baked. 
Dry Sand — Sand which has been baked in an oven after 

having been formed into a mold. 
Dry-sand Mold — A mold which has been baked in an oven 

to fix its shape permanently, and to give it a hard 

surface. 
Ears— The lugs on the cope part of a flask into which the pins 

on the drag fit. 
Eye-bolt — A bolt with a ring welded at one end. 
False Cheek — A body of sand in a mold, occupying the same 

position and performing the same functions as a cheek, 

but contained within the cope and drag, although separate 

from it. 
Feeding-head — See shrinkhead. 
Ferrite — The constituent of commercial iron consisting of 

pure iron. See cementite. 
Fire-brick — See bricks, fire. 
Flange Tool — A tool for furnishing the edges of flanges in a 

mold. 
Flask — The frame-work of wood or iron in which the sand is 

packed while being molded around a pattern. 
Flat-back — A pattern with a flat surface at the joint of the 

mold. Thus a flat-back pattern lies wholly within the 

drag and the joint of the cope is a plane surface. 
Flat Gate — A wide gate with a narrow opening into the 

mold, used for pouring thin flat castings. See Fig. 129. 
Floor Molding — See floor work. 
Floor Work — Molds large enough to require molding on the 

floor of the foundry. 
Flow-off — A channel cut from a riser to permit metal to 

flow away from it when it has risen in the riser to a certain 

predetermined height. 
Flux — A fusible material, containing lime, such as limestone, 



292 GLOSSARY 

charged in the melting furnace to combine chemically with 
and carry off impurities from the molten metal. 

Foundry — A shop where castings are made. 

Frozen Iron — Iron which has solidified. 

Gaggers — Rods of wrought- or cast-iron, with one end bent 
at a right angle, used to support hanging bodies of sand 
in a mold. 

Gate — The hole in the cope through which metal is poured 
into the mold. 

Gate-stick — A stick set in the cope while it is being rammed 
to form the passage into the mold through which the 
molten metal is poured. 

Gating Patterns — Arranging patterns on a backbone so that 
sprues will be formed by the backbone and its connection 
to the pattern when the mold is made. 

Green Core — A core which has not been baked. 

Green Sand — Ordinary molding sand which has not been 
baked or otherwise been subjected to heat treatment, ex- 
cept by coming in contact with molten metal in the mold. 

Green-sand Gore — A core made of green sand. 

Green-sand Match — A false cope in which the patterns are 
placed while the drag is being made. Its object is to avoid 
the making of a difficult joint on each mold where there 
are a number of castings to be made from one pattern. 

Grid — See skeleton. 

Hand Squeezer — A molding machine in which the sand is 
compressed to the proper density by pressure applied by 
hand to the outer surface of the mold. 

Hay-rope — A rope made of twisted hay, used to form the 
basis of cores made on arbors. 

Heap Sand — Green sand from the foundry floor. 

Hearth — That portion of an air-furnace on which the iron is 
melted. 

Heat — The melting period of a cupola or air-furnace. 

Horn Gate — A semicircular gate to convey iron over or 
under certain parts of a casting, so that it will enter the 
mold at or near the center. Also used as a skim gate. 



GLOSSARY 293 

Hub Tool — A tool for finishing the mold of pulley hubs. 
Jarring Machine — A molding machine in which the sand is 

packed by the sand, pattern, and flask being raised and 

dropped upon a table, the sand itself forming the ramming 

medium. 
Joint — The portion of the mold where the cope and drag come 

together — the upper surface of the drag and the lower 

surface of the cope. 
Jolt-rammer — See jarring machine. 
Lifter — A molder's tool with a flat end at right angles to the 

stem, used to lift loose sand from deep pockets in the mold. 
Loam — A mixture of molding sand and clay used for making 

loam molds. See Chapter XL 
Loam Bricks — See bricks, loam. 
Loam Mold — A mold built up of brick-work, iron plates, etc., 

covered with loam which is afterward baked on. 
Machine Molding — The operation of making molds on a 

molding machine. 
Malleable Casting — A hard brittle casting of white iron, 

which is rendered tough and malleable by annealing under 

certain conditions. 
Melting Zone — The portion of the cupola above the tuyere 

zone in which the iron is fused. 
Mold — The formed cavity in sand or other material into 

which molten iron is poured to obtain a casting of any 

desired shape. The term is usually applied to the body 

of sand surrounding the cavity. 
Mold-board — The board on which the patterns are laid when 

making the drag of a mold. 
Molding Machine — A machine, operated either by hand or 

power, for making molds. 
Molding Sand — Sand suitable for forming into molds. See 

Chapter XXI L 
NowEL — See drag. 
Paraffine-board — A board impregnated with parafifine on 

which patterns are mounted for use on the molding 

machine. 



294 GLOSSARY 

Parting — The plane on which a pattern is spHt. 

Parting Sand — A fine, sharp, dry sand dusted on the joint 

of a mold to prevent the cope and drag adhering to each 

other. 
Pattern — The object of wood, metal, or other material whose 

shape it is desired to reproduce in metal. The sand of 

the mold is formed around the pattern, which is later 

withdrawn, leaving a cavity of its exact size and shape to 

be filled with molten metal. 
Peen — The flat-pointed end of a rammer. Also, the operation 

of ramming with the peen end of a rammer, as peening the 

sand. 
Peg Gate — A round gate leading from a pouring basin in 

the cope to a basin in the drag, whence sprues lead to 

the mold. See Fig. 129. 
Pins — The projections on the drag of a flask which guide and 

hold it in position with relation to the cope. 
Pipe Tool — A tool for finishing the surface of pipe molds. 
Pouring Basin — A basin formed in the cope into which the 

iron is poured. 
Power Squeezer — A molding machine in which the sand is 

compressed to the proper density by pressure, applied 

by compressed air to the outer surface of the mold. 
Pumping — The action of feeding iron to a casting from a 

shrinkhead by forcing it in with a rod moved up and 

down in the shrinkhead. 
Rammer — The tool used by the molder for packing sand in a 

flask around a pattern. They are made of wood in the 

smaller sizes, known as hand rammers, and of iron in the 

larger sizes. 
Ramming — The action of packing sand around a pattern in a 

flask to form a mold. 
Rapping — The action of jarring a pattern in the sand to free 

it so that it may be drawn from the mold. 
Rapping Iron — An iron bar used to strike the draw-nail in 

order to jar the pattern preparatory to drawing. 
Reverberatory Furnace — A furnace for the melting of iron, 



GLOSSARY 295 

the iron and fuel being separated. The fuel is burned in 
a fire-box, separated from the iron on a hearth by a bridge 
wall. A sloping roof deflects the gases of combustion 
down on the iron and thus melts it. Largely used in 
malleable work. 

Riddle — A sieve for sifting sand on a pattern. 

Riser — A gate formed over a high portion of a mold to act as 
an indicator when the mold is filled with metal, and also 
to act as a feeder to supply iron to the casting as it shrinks 
in passing from the liquid to the solid state. 

Roll-over Machine — A molding machine in which the mold 
is rolled over before the pattern is drawn. 

Runner — A deep channel formed in the top of a cope, connect- 
ing with gates, into which the molten metal is poured. 

Runner Box — A set-ofif box in which a runner is formed. 

Run-out — See break-out. 

Scabs — Imperfections in a casting due to portions of the sur- 
face of a mold breaking away. 

Set Gate — A gate pattern used to form a gate or sprue, set 
against the pattern. 

Set-off Box — A small box, open at the top and bottom, 
fastened to the top of a cope to contain portions of a 
mold projecting above the cope. 

Shrinkhead — A large riser containing a sufficient body of 
metal to act as a feeder as the metal of the casting con- 
tracts in solidifying. 

Shot — Globules of metal formed in the body of a casting, and 
harder than the remainder of it. 

Skeleton — A metal framework on which a flat core is built. 

Skim Cores — Cores set in skim gates to act as skimmers. 

Skim Gate — A sprue so arranged as to skim any impurities 
from the surface of the molten iron as it flows into the 
mold, and restrain them from entering the mold. 

Skin-dried Mold — A green-sand mold whose surface has been 
baked for a depth of an inch or more. 

Slag — The earthy impurities fused in the melting furnace, to- 
gether with the fused flux charged with the fuel and metal. 



296 GLOSSARY 

Slag-hole — The opening in a cupola through which slag is 

withdrawn. 
Slicker — An elongated, flat, thin piece of steel used for 

smoothing the surfaces of molds. 
Slip — A wash applied to the surface of loam molds. 
Slurry — The mixture used to fill in the joints of cores. 
Slurrying — The process of filling in the joints of cores. 
Snap Flask — A flask hinged at the corners, and separable at 

one corner, so that it may be opened and removed from 

around a completed mold. 
Soldier — A wooden stick or rod, claywashed, used to support 

bodies of hanging sand, or large green-sand cores. 
Spindle — The rod or center on which a sweep is revolved. 
Spindle Seat — The socket in which the spindle revolves. 
Split Pattern — A pattern made in two or more parts. 
Split-pattern Squeezer — A squeezer type molding 

machine, either hand or power, adapted to molding 

split patterns. 
Spoon Slicker — A finishing tool for a mold, the end of which 

is made of spoon shape. 
Spring Draw-nail — A tool for drawing patterns, especially 

gear patterns, by gripping the inside of the hole in the hub. 
Sprue — The channels leading from the gate to the mold. 

Also, the metal which solidifies in these channels after the 

casting has cooled. 
Sprue Cutter — A piece of metal, used to cut channels in the 

joint to conduct iron from the pouring gate to the mold. 

Also a brass tube used to cut the pouring gates in the 

copes of machine-made molds. 
Stack — The portion of a cupola extending from the top of the 

melting zone to the level of the charging door. 
Stool — The support for a green-sand core on a molding 

machine. 
Stooling — The process of supporting green-sand cores in 

machine molding while the pattern is being drawn. 
Stool Plate — The plate on a molding machine on which 

stools are mounted. 



GLOSSARY 297 

Strickle — A strike with a form cut in one edge to form a 

regular surface on a mold. 
Strike — A flat bar of iron or wood used for striking or sweep- 
ing excess sand from the top of a mold. 
Stripping Plate — A plate on a molding machine on which the 

mold is made and through which the patterns are drawn 

from the mold. 
Swab — A limp brush made of teazled hemp rope used for wet- 
ting molds around the edges of patterns; swabbing, the 

action of applying water to a mold. 
Sweep — A piece of wood or iron revolved about a center to 

form the surface of a mold. 
Sweep Finger — The metal piece by means of which the 

sweep is attached to the spindle. 
Tap-hole — The opening in a melting furnace — cupola or air — 

through which molten metal is withdrawn. 
Tight Flask — A flask with a rigid framework — the opposite 

of snap flask. 
Trowel — -A molder's tool used for slicking the surface of a 

mold. 
Tuyeres — The openings in a cupola through which air is 

blown. 
Tuyere Zone — The portion of a cupola in the region of the 

tuyeres, where combustion takes place. 
Upset — A shallow frame set over a flask in which is formed 

a green-sand match. 
Vent — A small hole formed in a mold to permit the escape of 

gas from it. 
Vent- wire — A wire used for making vents. 
Vibrator — A device for rapping patterns by compressed air. 
Vibrator Frame — A frame in which patterns are mounted 

when they are to be drawn in connection with a vibrator. 
Whirl Gate — A gate or sprue arranged to introduce metal 

into a mold tangentially, and to thereby give it a swirling 

motion. 
Wind-box— The chamber surrounding a cupola through which 

air is conducted to the tuyeres. 



APPENDIX 



TABLE XVIII. — Circumferences and Areas of Circles 



Diam. 


Circum. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Circum. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Circum. 


Area. 


I 


3.I416 


-7854 


3 A 


II. 192 


9.9678 


6 M 


19-635 


30.680 


-^ 


3-3379 


.8866 


Vs 


11.388 


10.321 


Vs 


20.028 


31-919 


Vs 


3-5343 


.9940 


H 


11-585 


10.680 


iH 


20.420 


33-183 


A 


3-7306 


I. 1075 


H 


II. 781 


11.045 


Vs 


20.813 


34-472 


H 


3.9270 


1.2272 


H 


11.977 


II. 416 


H 


21.206 


35.785 


A 


4-1233 


1-3530 


Vs 


12.174 


11-793 


Vs 


21.598 


37.122 


Vs 


4-3197 


1.4849 


-\i 


12.370 


12.177 


7 


21.991 


38.485 


^ 


4.5160 


1.6230 


4 


12.566 


12.566 


Vs 


22.384 


39.871 


^ 


4.7124 


1. 7671 


■h 


12.763 


12.962 


M 


22.776 


41.282 


A 


4.9087 


I-9175 


Vs 


12.959 


13-364 


Vs 


23.169 


42.718 


Vs 


5-1051 


2.0739 


A 


13-155 


13.772 


V2 


23-562 


44-179 


H 


5-3014 


2.2365 


M 


13-352 


14.186 


Vs 


23-955 


45.664 


V4 


5-4978 


2.4053 


T^ 


13-548 


14.607 


H 


24-347 


47-173 


a 


5-6941 


2.5802 


Vs 


13-744 


15.033 


Vs 


24.740 


48.707 


Vs 


5-8905 


2.7612 


7 
T6 


13-941 


15.466 


8 


25-133 


50.265 


n 


6.0868 


2.9483 


V2 


14-137 


15-904 


Vs 


25-525 


51.849 


2 


6.2832 


3.1416 


A 


14-334 


16.349 


H 


25.918 


53-456 


^ 


6-4795 


3.3410 


Vs 


14-530 


16.800 


Vs 


26.311 


55.088 


J^ 


6.6759 


3.5466 


tt 


14.726 


17-257 


V2 


26.704 


56.745 


A 


6.8722 


3-7583 


H 


14-923 


17.721 


Vs 


27.096 


58.426 


M 


7.0686 


3-9761 


it 


15-II9 


18.190 


% 


27.489 


60.132 


^ 


7.2649 


4.2000 


Vs 


15.315 


18.665 


Vs 


27.882 


61.862 


¥ 


7-4613 


4-4301 


n 


15.512 


19.147 


9 


28.274 


63.617 


A 


7-6576 


4.6664 


5 


15.708 


19-635 


Vs 


28.667 


65.397 


H 


7.8540 


4.9087 


1 

T6 


15-904 


20.129 


V 


29.060 


67.201 


A 


8.0503 


5-1572 


Vs 


16.IOI 


20.629 


Vs 


29-452 


69.029 


^ 


8.2467 


5-4119 


A 


16.297 


21.135 


V2 


29.845 


70.882 


tt 


8.4430 


5-6727 


H 


16.493 


21.648 


Vs 


30.238 


72.760 


^ 


8.6394 


5-9396 


A 


16.690 


22.166 


H 


30.631 


74.662 


■ U 


8.8357 


6.2126 


¥ 


16.886 


22.691 


Vs 


31.023 


76.589 


Vs 


9.0321 


6.4918 


A 


17.082 


23.221 


10 


31.416 


78.540 


^ 


9.2284 


6.7771 


'A 


17.279 


23-758 


Vs 


31.809 


80.516 


3 


9.4248 


7.0686 


A 


17.475 


24.301 


H 


32.201 


82.516 


^ 


9.62 II 


7-3662 


Vs 


17.671 


24.850 


Vs 


32.594 


84.541 


Vs 


9-8175 


7.6699 


11 


17.868 


25.406 


V2 


32.987 


86.590 


^ 


10.014 


7.9798 


H 


18.064 


25.967 


Vs 


33-379 


88.664 


H 


10.210 


8.2958 


xa 

16 


18.261 


26.535 


H 


33-772 


90.763 


A 


10.407 


8.6179 


Vs 


18.457 


27.109 


Vs 


34-165 


92.886 


¥ 


10.603 


8.9462 


n 


18.653 


27.688 


II 


34-558 


95.033 


A 


10.799 


9.2806 


6 


18.850 


28.274 


Vs 


34-950 


97.205 


H 


10.996 


9.621 1 


Vs 


19.242 


29-465 


H 


35-343 


99.402 



298 



APPENDIX 
TABLE XVIU— Continued 



299 



Circum. 


Area. 


35736 


101.62 


36.128 


103.87 


36.521 


106.14 


36.914 


108.43 


37-306 


110.75 


37-699 


113. 10 


38.092 


115-47 


38-485 


117.86 


38.877 


120.28 


39.270 


122.72 


39-663 


125.19 


40-055 


127.68 


40.448 


130.19 


40.841 


132-73 


41-233 


135-30 


41.626 


137-89 


42.019 


140.50 


42.412 


143-14 


42.804 


145.80 


43-197 


148.49 


43-590 


151.20 


43.982 


153-94 


44-375 


156.70 


44-768 


159.48 


45.160 


162.30 


45-553 


165-13 


45-946 


167.99 


46-338 


170.87 


46-731 


173-78 


47.124 


176.71 


47-517 


179.67 


47-909 


182.65 


48.302 


185.66 


48.695 


188.69 


49.087 


191-75 


49.480 


194-83 


49-873 


197-93 


50.265 


201.06 


50.658 


204.22 


51-051 


207.39 


51-444 


210.60 


51-836 


213.82 


52.229 


217.08 


52.622 


220.35 


53-014 


223.65 


53-407 


226.98 


53.800 


230.33 


54-192 


233-71 


54-585 


237.10 



Diam. 



H 

'Va 
M 
Vs 

Vs 



19 



H 



Circum. 



23 



54-978 
55-371 
55.763 
56.156 
56.549 
56.941 
57.334 
57.727 
58.119 
58.512 
58.905 
59.298 
59.690 
60.083 
60.476 
60.868 
61.261 
61.654 
62.046 
62.439 
62.832 
63.225 
63.617 
64.010 
64.403 
64.795 
65.188 

65.581 
65.973 
66.366 

66.759 
67.152 

67-544 
67-937 
68.330 
68.722 
69.115 
69.508 
69.900 
70.293 
70.686 
71.079 
71.471 
71.864 

72.257 
72.649 
73.042 

73-435 
73.827 



Area. 


Diam. 


Circum. 


240.53 


23% 


74.220 


243.98 


H 


74.613 


247.45 


Vs 


75.006 


250.95 


24 


75.398 


254.47 


Vs 


75.791 


258.02 


H 


76.184 


261.59 


Vs 


76.576 


265.18 


^ 


76.969 


268.80 


Vs 


77.362 


272-45 


H 


77.754 


276.12 


Vs 


78.147 


279.81 


25 


78.540 


283.53 


Vs 


78.933 


287.27 


H 


79.325 


291.04 


Vs 


79.718 


294.83 


H 


80.1 1 1 


298.65 


Vs 


80.503 


302.49 


H 


80.896 


306.35 


Vs 


81.289 


310.24 


26 


81.681 


314.16 


Vs 


82.074 


318.10 


Va 


82.467 


322.06 


Vs 


82.860 


326.05 


Vi 


83.252 


330.06 


Vs 


83.645 


334.10 


M 


84.038 


338.16 


Vs 


84.430 


342.25 


27 


84.823 


346.36 


Vs 


85.216 


350.50 


M 


85.608 


354.66 


Vs 


86.001 


358.84 


V2 


86.394 


363.05 


Vs 


86.786 


367.28 


Va 


87.179 


371-54 


Vs 


87.572 


375.83 


28 


87.965 


380.13 


Vs 


88.357 


384.46 


Va 


88.750 


388.82 


Vs 


89-143 


393.20 


V2 


89-535 


397-61 


Vs 


89.928 


402.04 


M 


90.321 


406.49 


Vs 


90.713 


410.97 


29 


91.106 


415.48 


Vs 


91.499 


420.00 


M 


91.892 


424.56 


Vs 


92.284 


429-13 


Vi 


92.677 


433-74 


Vs 


93.070 



Area. 

438-36 
443.01 
447.69 

452.39 

457-11 
461.86 
466.64 

471.44 
476.26 
481. II 
485.98 
490.87 

495.79 
500.74 

505.71 
510.71 

515-72 
520.77 
525.84 
530.93 
536.05 
541.19 
546.35 
551.55 
556.76 
562.00 
567.27 
572.56 
577-87 
583-21 
588.57 
593-96 
599-37 
604.81 
610.27 

615.75 
621.26 
626.80 
632.36 
637.94 
643.55 
649.18 
654.84 
660.52 
666.23 
671.96 
677.71 

683.49 
689.30 



300 



APPENDIX 
TABLE XW III. —Continued 



Diam. 


Circum. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Circum. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Circum. 


Area. 


29 H 


93.462 


695-13 


35 J^ 


112.705 


I0I0.8 


42,, 


131-947 


1385-4 


Vs 


93-855 


700.98 


36,, 


113.097 


IO17.9 


y 


132.340 


1393-7 


30,. 


94.248 


706.86 


% 


113.490 


1025.0 1 


y 


132.732 


1402.0 


Vs 


94.640 


712.76 


H 


113-883 


1032. 1 


y 


133-125 


I410.3 


H 


95-033 


718.69 


y% 


114.275 


1039.2 


y 


133-518 


1418.6 


Vs 


95.426 


724.64 


Vi 


114.668 


1046.3 


y 


133.910 


1427.0 


¥2 


95-819 


730.62 


y% 


115. 061 


1053-5 


y 


134-303 


1435-4 


Vs 


96.211 


736.62 


H 


115-454 


1060.7 


y 


134.696 


1443-8 


M 


96.604 


742.64 


K 


115.846 


1068.0 


43 


135.088 


1452.2 


% 


96.997 


748.69 


37 


116.239 


1075.2 


y 


135-481 


1460.7 


31 


97-389 


754-77 


ys 


116.632 


1082.5 


y 


135-874 


1 469. 1 


Vs 


97.782 


760.87 


y 


117.024 


1089.8 


y 


136.267 


1477.6 


M 


98-175 


766.99 


% 


II7.417 


IO97.I 


y 


136.659 


1486.2 


Vs 


98.567 


773-14 


y2 


117. 810 


1 104.5 


y 


137.052 


1494-7 


Yi 


98.960 


779-31 


% 


118.202 


nil. 8 


y 


137-445 


1503-3 


Vs 


99-353 


785-51 


y 


118.596 


1119.2 


y 


137-837 


1511-9 


y^ 


99.746 


791-73 


y 


118.988 


1126.7 


44,, 


138.230 


1520.5 


Vi 


100.138 


797-98 


3^/ 


119-381 


1134.1 


y 


138.623 


1529.2 


32 


100.531 


804.25 


y 


119.773 


1141.6 


y 


139.015 


1537.9 


y% 


100.924 


810.54 


y 


120.166 


1149.1 


y 


139.408 


1546.6 


M 


101.316 


816.86 


y 


120.559 


1156.6 


y 


139.801 


1555.3 


y% 


101.709 


823.21 


y 


120.951 


1 1 64.2 


y 


140.194 


1564.0 


Vi 


102.102 


829.58 


y 


121.344 


1171.7 


y 


140.586 


1572.8 


y% 


102.494 


835-97 


y 


121.737 


1 179-3 


y 


140.979 


1581.6 


M 


102.887 


842.39 


y 


122.129 


1 1 86.9 


45,, 


141.372 


1590.4 


% 


103.280 


848.83 


39 , 


122.522 


1 194.6 


y 


141.764 


1599-3 


33 


103.673 


855-30 


y 


122.915 


1202.3 


y 


142-157 


1608.2 


y% 


104.065 


861.79 


y 


123.308 


1210.0 


y 


142-550 


1617.0 


M 


104.458 


868.31 


y 


123.700 


1217.7 


y 


142.942 


1626.0 


^ 


104.851 


874-85 


y 


124.093 


1225.4 


y 


143-335 


1634-9 


^ 


105.243 


881.41 


y 


124.486 


1233.2 


y 


143.728 


1643-9 


^ 


105.636 


888.00 


H 


124.878 


1241.0 


y 


144. 121 


1652.9 


M 


106.029 


894.62 


y 


125.271 


1248.8 


46,. 


144-513 


1661.9 


K 


106.421 


901.26 


40 


125.664 


1256.6 


y 


144.906 


1670.9 


34 , 


106.814 


907.92 


y 


126.056 


1264.5 


y 


145-299 


1680.0 


K 


107.207 


914.61 


y 


126.449 


1272.4 


y 


145.691 


1 689. 1 


M 


107.600 


921.32 


H 


126.842 


1280.3 


y 


146.084 


1698.2 


3/^ 


107.992 


928.06 


y 


127.235 


1288.2 


y 


146.477 


1707.4 


H 


108.385 


934.82 


y 


127.627 


1296.2 


y 


146.869 


1716.5 


y% 


108.778 


941.61 


y 


128.020 


1304.2 


y 


147.262 


1725-7 


% 


109.170 


948.42 


y 


128.413 


1312.2 


47 , 


147.655 


1734-9 


Vb 


109.563 


955-25 


4^ ,. 


128.805 


1320.3 


y 


148.048 


1744.2 


35 


109.956 


962.11 


y 


129.198 


1328.3 


y 


148.440 


1753-5 


H 


110.348 


969.00 


y 


129.591 


1336.4 


y 


148-833 


1762.7 


M 


1 10.741 


975-91 


y 


129.983 


1344-5 


y 


149.226 


1772.1 


^ 


III. 134 


982.84 


y 


130.376 


1352.7 


y 


149.618 


1781.4 


^ 


111.527 


989.80 


y 


130.769 


1360.8 


y 


150.01 1 


1790.8 


5/^ 


III. 919 


996.78 


y 


131. 161 


1369.0 


y 


150.404 


1 800. 1 


M 


112. 312 


1003.8 


y 


131-554 


1377.2 


48 


150.796 


1809.6 



APPENDIX 
TABLE XVlll.— Continued 



301 



Diam. 


Circvtm. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Circum. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Circum. 


Area. 


48^ 


151. 189 


1819.O 


54 VI 


170.431 


23II-5 


60 y 


189.674 


2862.9 


H 


151-582 


1828.5 


^ 


170.824 


2322.1 


Y2 


190.066 


2874.8 


Vs 


151-975 


1837-9 


¥2 


171.217 


2332.8 


y 


190.459 


2886.6 


Vi. 


152.367 


1847-5 


y^ 


171.609 


2343-5 


y 


190.852 


2898.6 


y% 


152.760 


1857.0 


¥. 


172.002 


2354-3 


y 


191.244 


2910.5 


M 


153-153 


1866.5 


% 


172.395 


2365.0 


61 


191.637 


2922.5 


Vk 


153-545 


1 876. 1 


55,, 


172.788 


2375-8 


y 


192.030 


2934-5 


49,, 


153-938 


1885.7 


Ys 


173.180 


2386.6 


H 


192.423 


2946.5 


y% 


154-331 


1895.4 


M 


173-573 


2397-5 


y 


192.815 


2958.5 


Va 


154-723 


1905.0 


% 


173.966 


2408.3 


Yi 


193.208 


2970.6 


y% 


155-I16 


1914.7 


Vi 


174-358 


2419.2 


y 


193.601 


2982.7 


Yi 


155-509 


1924.4 


y 


174-751 


2430.1 


y 


193-993 


2994.8 


y% 


155-902 


1934.2 


% 


175-144 


2441. 1 


y 


194.386 


3006.9 


M 


156.294 


1943-9 


% 


1 75-536 


2452.0 


62 


194.779 


3019-1 


y% 


156.687 


1953-7 


56,. 


175.929 


2463.0 


Ys 


195-171 


3031.3 


5°,/ 


157.080 


1963-5 


Ys 


176.322 


2474.0 


M 


195-564 


3043-5 


^ 


157-472 


1973-3 


M 


176.715 


2485.0 


y 


195-957 


3055-7 


M 


157-865 


1983.2 


Y^ 


177.107 


2496.1 


Y2 


196.350 


3068.0 


^ 


158.258 


1993-I 


Y2 


177.500 


2507.2 


y 


196.742 


3080.3 


J^ 


158.650 


2003.0 


y 


177-893 


2518.3 


y 


197-135 


3092.6 


y% 


159-043 


2012.9 


% 


178.285 


2529-4 


y 


197.528 


3104.9 


y4 


159-436 


2022.8 


y 


178.678 


2540.6 


^3,, 


197.920 


3117.2 


% 


159.829 


2032.8 


57 _ 


179.071 


2551-8 


Ys 


198.313 


3129.6 


5^,, 


160.221 


2042.8 


Y^ 


179-463 


2563.0 


H 


198.706 


3142.0 


1^ 


160.614 


2052.8 


Y 


179.856 


2574-2 


y 


199.098 


3154-5 


M 


161.007 


2062.9 


y 


180.249 


2585-4 


Y2 


199.491 


3166.9 


% 


161.399 


2073.0 


Y2 


180.642 


2596.7 


y 


199.884 


3179-4 


J^ 


161.792 


2083.1 


y 


181.034 


2608.0 


y 


200.277 


319I-9 


^ 


162.185 


2093.2 


y 


181.427 


2619.4 


y^ 


200.669 


3204.4 


% 


162.577 


2103.3 


y 


181.820 


2630.7 


64 


201.062 


3217.0 


% 


162.970 


2II3-5 


58 


182.212 


2642.1 


Y% 


201.455 


3229.6 


52,, 


163.363 


2123.7 


Y% 


182.605 


2653.5 


M 


201.847 


3242.2 


M 


163-756 


2133-9 


34 


182.998 


2664.9 


y 


202.240 


3254-8 


M 


164.148 


2144.2 


y 


183.390 


2676.4 


Y2 


202.633 


3267.5 


^ 


164.541 


2154-5 


Y2 


183-783 


2687.8 


y 


203.025 


3280.1 


^ 


164.934 


2164.8 


y 


184.176 


2699.3 


y 


203.418 


3292.8 


5^ 


165.326 


2175.1 


y 


184.569 


2710.9 


y 


203.811 


3305.6 


li 


165.719 


2185.4 


y 


184.961 


2722.4 


65 


204.204 


3318.3 


% 


166. 1 12 


2195-8 


59 


185.354 


2734-0. 


^ 


204.596 


333I-I 


53,, 


166.504 


2206.2 


y 


185-747 


2745.6 


K 


204.989 


3343-9 


y% 


166.897 


2216.6 


H 


186.139 


2757-2 


y 


205.382 


3356.7 


M 


167.290 


2227.0 


y 


186.532 


2768.8 


Yi 


205.774 


3369.6 


fl 


167.683 


2237-5 


Y2 


186.925 


2780.5 


y 


206.167 


3382.4 


j^ 


168.075 


2248.0 


y 


187.317 


2792.2 


y 


206.560 


3395.3 


^ 


168.468 


2258.5 


y 


187.710 


2803.9 


y 


206.952 


3408.2 


M 


168.861 


2269.1 


y 


188.103 


2815.7 


66 


207.345 


3421.2 


K 


169.253 


2279.6 


60 


188.496 


2827.4 


Ys 


207.738 


3434.2 


54,^ 


169.646 


2290.2 [ 


y 


188.888 


2839.2 


M 


208.131 


3447.2 


^ 


170.039 


2300.8 


Y 


189.281 


2851.0 


y 


208.523 


3460.2 



302 



APPENDIX 
TABLE XVUl.— Continued 



Diam. 


Circum. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Circum. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Circum. 


Area. 


66 3^ 


208.916 


3473-2 


12% 


228.158 


4142.5 


78 M 


247.400 


4870.7 


^ 


209.309 


3486.3 


Xs 


228.551 


4156.8 


% 


247.793 


4886.2 


H 


209.701 


3499-4 


y% 


228.944 


4171.I 


79,, 


248.186 


4901.7 


Vs 


210.094 


3512.5 


73 _ 


229.336 


4185.4 


H 


248.579 


4917.2 


^7 , 


210.487 


3525-7 


y% 


229.729 


4199-7 


% 


248.971 


4932-7 


Vs 


210.879 


3538.8 


K 


230.122 


4214.I 


% 


249.364 


4948.3 


H 


211.272 


3552-0 


y% 


230.514 


4228.5 


H 


249-757 


4963.9 


H 


211.665 


3565-2 


^ 


230.907 


4242.9 


^ 


250.149 


4979-5 


V2 


212.058 


3578.5 


y% 


231.300 


4257-4 


M 


250.542 


4995-2 


Vs 


212.450 


3591-7 


H 


231.692 


4271.8 


% 


250.935 


5010.9 


H 


212.843 


3605.0 


% 


232-085 


4286.3 


80 


251.327 


5026.5 


Vs 


213.236 


3618.3 


74,, 


232.478 


4300.8 


H 


251.720 


5042.3 


68 


213.628 


3631-7 


^ 


232.871 


4315-4 


y 


252.113 


5058.0 


Vs 


214.021 


3645-0 


M 


233-263 


4329-9 


y% 


252.506 


5073-8 


H 


214.414 


3658.4 


% 


233-656 


4344-5 


^ 


252.898 


5089.6 


y% 


214.806 


3671-8 


y-i 


234-049 


4359-2 


^ 


253.291 


5105-4 


y^ 


215.199 


3685-3 


% 


234.441 


4373-8 


M 


253-684 


5121.2 


y% 


215-592 


3698.7 


X^ 


234-834 


4388.5 


K 


254.076 


5137-I 


yA. 


215.984 


3712.2 


K 


235.227 


4403-1 


81 


254.469 


5153-0 


y% 


216.377 


3725-7 


75,. 


235.619 


4417.9 


y% 


254.862 


5168.9 


69 ^ 


216.770 


3739.3 


y^ 


236.012 


4432.6 


y4. 


255-254 


5184-9 


y% 


217.163 


3752.8 


M 


236.405 


4447.4 


y% 


255-647 


5200.8 


H 


217-555 


3766.4 


y% 


236.798 


4462.2 


H 


256.040 


5216.8 


y% 


217.948 


3780.0 


yi 


237.190 


4477.0 


y% 


256.433 


5232-8 


yi 


218.341 


3793-7 


% 


237-583 


4491.8 


M 


256.825 


5248.9 


ys 


218.733 


3807.3 


% 


237.976 


4506.7 


y% 


257.218 


5264.9 


M 


219.126 


3821.0 


K 


238.368 


4521-5 


82 


257.611 


5281.0 


% 


219.519 


3834-7 


76 


238.761 


4536.5 


M 


258.003 


5297-1 


70 


219. 911 


3848.5 


% 


239-154 


4551-4 


y 


258.396 


5313-3 


H 


220.304 


3862.2 


M 


239-546 


4566.4 


% 


258.789 


5329-4 


M 


220.697 


3876.0 


y% 


239-939 


4581.3 


K 


259-181 


5345-6 


% 


221.090 


3889.8 


yi 


240.332 


4596.3 


% 


259-574 


5361.8 


y^ 


221.482 


3903.6 


% 


240.725 


461 1.4 


y^. 


259-967 


5378.1 


y% 


221.875 


3917-5 


H 


241. 117 


4626.4 


y% 


260.359 


5394-3 


^ 


222.268 


3931-4 


% 


241.510 


4641.5 


83 


260.752 


5410.6 


y% 


222.660 


3945-3 


77 _ 


241.903 


4656.6 


Yz 


261.145 


5426.9 


7^, 


223.053 


3959-2 


^ 


242.295 


4671.8 


y 


261.538 


5443-3 


H. 


223.446 


3973-1 


M 


242.688 


4686.9 


^ 


261.930 


5459-6 


M 


223.838 


3987-1 


ys 


243.081 


4702.1 


H 


262.323 


5476.0 


y% 


224.231 


4001. 1 


K 


243-473 


4717.3 


y% 


262.716 


5492.4 


^ 


224.624 


4015.2 


% 


243.866 


4732.5 


H 


263.108 


5508.8 


^ 


225.017 


4029.2 


H 


244.259 


4747-8 


y% 


263.501 


5525-3 


^ 


225.409 


4043-3 


% 


244.652 


4763-1 


^4,, 


263.894 


5541-8 


% 


225.802 


4057-4 


7^/ 


245.044 


4778.4 


y% 


264.286 


5558-3 


72 


226.195 


4071-5 


H 


245-437 


4793-7 


y 


264.679 


5574-8 


^ 


226.587 


4085-7 


H 


245.830 


4809.0 


% 


265.072 


5591-4 


M 


226.980 


4099.8 


H 


246.222 


4824.4 


yi 


265.465 


5607-9 


^ 


227.373 


4114.0 


K 


246.615 


4839.8 


% 


265-857 


5624-5 


j^ 


227.765 


4128.2 


% 


247.008 


4855-2 


% 


266.250 


5641.2 



APPENDIX 
TABLE XWUl.— Continued 



303 



Diam. 


Circum. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Circum. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Circum. 


Area. 


SiVs 


266.643 


5657-8 


^0" 


282.743 


6361.7 


95 J^ 


298.844 


7106.9 


85 


267.035 


5674.5 


H 


283.136 


6379-4 


% 


299.237 


7125.6 


Vs 


267.428 


5691.2 


M 


283.529 


6397-1 


% 


299.629 


7144-3 


M 


267.821 


5707-9 


y% 


283.921 


6414.9 


yi 


300.022 


7163.0 


Vs 


268.213 


5724-7 


^ 


284.314 


6432.6 


% 


300.415 


7181.8 


Vi 


268.606 


5741-5 


% 


284.707 


6450.4 


M 


300.807 


7200.6 


y% 


268.999 


5758-3 


H 


285.100 


6468.2 


% 


301.200 


7219.4 


M 


269.392 


5775-1 


% 


285.492 


6486.0 


9^/ 


301-593 


7238.2 


y% 


269.784 


5791-9 


91 


285.885 


6503-9 


y^ 


301.986 


7257-1 


86 


270.177 


5808.8 


H 


286.278 


6521.8 


y 


302.378 


7276.0 


y^ 


270.570 


5825.7 


M 


286.670 


6539-7 


% 


302.771 


7294-9 


M 


270.962 


5842.6 


% 


287.063 


6557-6 


Vi 


303.164 


7313-8 


y% 


271-355 


5859.6 


y2 


287.456 


6575-5 


•^8 


303.556 


7332.8 


y^ 


271.748 


5876-5 


y% 


287.848 


6593-5 


% 


303.949 


7351-8 


% 


272.140 


5893-5 


% 


288.241 


661 1.5 


% 


304.342 


7370.8 


M 


272.533 


5910.6 


y% 


288.634 


6629.6 


97 _ 


304.734 


7389.8 


K 


272.926 


5927-6 


92 


289.027 


6647.6 


y 


305.127 


7408.9 


87 


273-319 


5944-7 


y^ 


289.419 


6665.7 


y 


305.520 


7428.0 


^ 


273-711 


5961.8 


M 


289.812 


6683.8 


y% 


305.913 


7447-1 


M 


274.104 


5978-9 


y% 


290.205 


6701.9 


yi 


306.305 


7466.2 


y^ 


274.497 


5996-0 


X^ 


290.597 


6720.1 


5-8 


306.698 


7485-3 


^ 


274.889 


6013.2 


H 


290.990 


6738.2 


y 


307.091 


7504-5 


^ 


275.282 


6030.4 


% 


291.383 


6756.4 


y 


307-483 


7523-7 


M 


275-675 


6047.6 


% 


291.775 


6774-7 


98 


307.876 


7543-0 


K 


276.067 


6064.9 


93 


292.168 


6792.9 


y 


308.269 


7562.2 


88 


276.460 


6082.1 


^ 


292.561 


6811.2 


y 


308.661 


7581-5 


^ 


276.853 


6099.4 


M 


292.954 


6829.5 


y 


309-054 


7600.8 


M 


277.246 


6116.7 


% 


293-346 


6847.8 


y 


309-447 


7620.1 


^ 


277.638 


6134.1 


Vi 


293-739 


6866.1 


y 


309.840 


7639-5 


K 


278.031 


6151.4 


% 


294.132 


6884.5 


y 


310.232 


7658.9 


^ 


278.424 


6168.8 


K 


294.524 


6902.9 


% 


310.625 


7678.3 


M 


278.816 


6186.2 


% 


294.917 


6921.3 


99,, 


311.O18 


7697.7 


K 


279.209 


6203.7 


94 


295.310 


6939-8 


y 


311.41O 


7717.1 


89 


279.602 


622 1. 1 


H 


295.702 


6958.2 


H 


311.803 


7736.6 


^ 


279.994 


6238.6 


% 


296.095 


6976.7 


H 


312.196 


7756.1 


M 


280.387 


6256.1 


% 


296.488 


6995.3 


y 


312.588 


7775-6 


3/^ 


280.780 


6273.7 


H 


296.881 


7013.8 


y 


312.981 


7795-2 


J^ 


281.173 


6291.2 


^ 


297-273 


7032.4 


y 


313-374 


7814.8 


^ 


281.565 


6308.8 


M 


297.666 


7051.0 


y 


313-767 


7834-4 


M 


281.958 


6326.4 


% 


298.059 


7069.6 


100 


314-159 


7854.0 


y% 


282.351 


6344.1 


95 


298.451 


7088.2 









304 



APPENDIX 



TABLE XIX.— Spheres 
(Some errors of i in the last figure only.) 



Diam. 


Surface. 


Volume. 


Diam. 


Surface. 


Volume. 


Diam. 


Surface. 


Volume. 


^ 


.00307 


.00002 


2 Vs 


17.721 


7.0144 


6 Vs 


127.68 


135^66 


^ 


.01227 


.00013 


7 

"re 


18.666 


7-5829 


V2 


132-73 


143-79 


% 


.02761 


.00043 


V2 


19-635 


8.1813 


Vs 


137-89 


152-25 


Vs 


.04909 


.00102 


A 


20.629 


8.8103 


M 


143-14 


161.03 


A. 


.07670 


.00200 


Vs 


21.648 


9.4708 


Vs 


148.49 


170.14 


A 


.11045 


-00345 


11 


[22.691 


10.164 


7 


153-94 


179-59 


A 


•15033 


.00548 


M 


23-758 


10.889 


Vs 


159-49 


189.39 


H 


•19635 


•.00818 


H 


24.850 


11.649 


^ 


165-13 


199-53 


A 


.24851 


.01165 


Vs 


[25.967 


12.443 


Vs 


170.87 


210.03 


A 


.30680 


.01598 


15 
16 


27.109 


13.272 


V2 


176.71 


220.89 


^ 


•37123 


.02127 


3 


28.274 


14-137 


Vs 


182.66 


232-13 


Vs 


•44179 


.02761 


T^n 


29-465 


15-039 


M 


188.69 


243-73 


M 


.51848 


-0351 1 


Vs 


30.680 


15-979 


Vs 


194-83 


255-72 


A 


.60132 


•04385 


^ 


31-919 


16.957 


8 


201.06 


268.08 


M 


.69028 


•05393 


H 


33-183 


17-974 


Vs 


207.39 


280.85 


3^ 


.78540 


•06545 


*. 


34-472 


19.031 


H 


213.82 


294.01 


A 


•99403 


.09319 


Vs 


35-784 


20.129 


Vs 


220.36 


307-58 


^ 


1.2272 


.12783 


A 


37.122 


21.268 


V2 


226.98 


321^56 


tt 


1.4849 


.17014 


V2 


38.484 


22.449 


Vs 


233-71 


335-95 


M 


1-7671 


.22089 


A 


39-872 


23-674 


V 


240.53 


350.77 


il 


2.0739 


.28084 


Vs 


41.283 


24.942 


Vs 


247-45 


366.02 


Vs 


2-4053 


•35077 


tt 


42.719 


26.254 


9 


254-47 


381.70 


IS 
T6 


2.761I 


•43143 


V 


44-179 


27.611 


Vs 


261.59 


397-83 


I 


3.1416 


.52360 


H 


45.664 


29.016 


H 


268.81 


414.41 


A 


3-5466 


.62804 


Vs 


47-173 


30.466 


Vs 


270.12 


431-44 


Vs 


3.9761 


•74551 


it 


48.708 


31-965 


V2 


283-53 


448.92 


A 


4.4301 


.87681 


4 , 


50-265 


33-510 


Vs 


291.04 


466.87 


M 


4.9088 


1.0227 


Vs 


53-456 


36.751 


¥ 


289.65 


485-31 


A, 


5-4119 


1. 1839 


M 


56-745 


40-195 


Vs 


306.36 


504.21 


N 


5-9396 


I.3611 


Vs 


60.133 


43 •847 


10 


314.16 


523-60 


^ 


6.4919 


1^5553 


V2 


63.617 


47^713 


Vs 


322.06 


543-48 


Yl 


7.0686 


I. 7671 


Vs 


67.201 


51.801 


H 


330.06 


563-86 


^ 


7.6699 


^•9974 


H 


70-883 


56.116 


Vs 


338.16 


584-74 


Vs 


8.2957 


2.2468 


Vs 


74-663 


60.663 


V2 


346.36 


606.13 


ii 


8.9461 


2.5161 


5 


78-540 


65-450 


Vs 


354-66 


628.04 


M 


9.62 1 1 


2.8062 


Vs 


82.516 


70.482 


% 


363-05 


650.46 


it 


10.321 


3^ii77 


M 


86.591 


75-767 


Vs 


371-54 


673.42 


K 


1 1 .044 


3-4514 


Vs 


90.763 


81.308 


II 


380.13 


696.91 


il 


11-793 


3-8083 


Yi 


95-033 


87.113 


Vs 


388.83 


720.95 


2 


12.566 


4.1888 


Vs 


99-401 


93-189 


M 


397.61 


745-51 


^ 


I3^364 


4-5939 


V 


103-87 


99-541 


Vs 


406.49 


770.64 


H 


14.186 


5-0243 


Vs 


108.44 


106.18 


V2 


415.48 


796.33 


1% 


15-033 


5.4809 


6 


II3.IO 


113. 10 


Vs 


424.50 


822.58 


M 


15-904 


5-9641 


Vs 


117-87 


120.31 


M 


433^73 


849.40 


A 


16.800 


6-4751 


M 


122.72 


127.83 


Vs 


443.01 


876.79 



APPENDIX 
TABLE XIX.— Continued 



305 



Diam. 


Surface. 


Volume. 


Diam. 


Surface. 


Volume. 


Diam. 


Surface. 


Volume. 


12 


452.39 


904.78 


24 M 


1847-5 


7466.7 


38 J^ 


4656.7 


^29880 


M 


471.44 


962.52 


y2 


1885.8 


7700.1 


39,, 


4778.4 


31059 


y2 


490.87 


1022.7 


M 


1924.4 


7938.3 


K 


4901.7 


32270 


H 


510.71 


1085.3 


25 


1963-5 


8181.3 


40 


5026.5 


33510 


13 


530.93 


1 150-3 


}4 


2002.9 


8429.2 


^ 


5153.1 


34783 


M 


551.55 


1218.O 


H 


2042.8 


8682.0 


41 


5281. I 


36087 


^ 


572.55 


1288.3 


H 


2083.0 


8939.9 


^ 


5410.7 


37423 


?€ 


593-95 


1361.2 


26 


2123.7 


9202.8 


42 


5541-9 


38792 


14 


615-75 


1436.8 


M 


2164.7 


9470.8 


^ 


5674-5 


40194 


J^ 


637-95 


1515-I 


^ 


2206.2 


9744.0 


43 


5808.8 


41630 


^ 


660.52 


1596.3 


H 


2248.0 


10022 


yi 


5944-7 


43099 


M 


683.49 


1680.3 


27 


2290.2 


10306 


44 


6082.1 


44602 


15 


706.85 


1767.2 


}4 


2332.8 


10595 


yi 


6221.2 


46141 


M 


730.63 


1857.0 


y^ 


.2375-8 


10889 


45,, 


6361.7 


47713 


J^ 


754-77 


1949.8 


M 


2419.2 


1 1 189 


^ 


6503-9 


49321 


H 


779.32 


2045.7 


28 


2463.0 


II 494 


^^/ 


6647.6 


50965 


16 


804.25 


2144.7 


M 


2507.2 


1 1 805 


y 


6792.9 


52645 


M 


829.57 


2246.8 


^ 


2551-8 


12121 


M 


6939-9 


54362 


J^ 


855.29 


2352.1 


M 


2596.7 


12443 


y2 


7088.3 


56115 


.^i 


881.42 


2460.6 


^9,, 


2642.1 


12770 


48 


7238.3 


57906 


^7,. 


907.93 


2572.4 


M 


2687.8 


13103 


H 


7389-9 


59734 


M 


934.83 


2687.6 


y^ 


2734.0 


13442 


49 


7543-1 


61601 


K 


962.12 


2806.2 


H 


2780.5 


13787 


y 


7696.7 


63506 


M 


989.80 


2928.2 


30 


2827.4 


14137 


50 


7854.0 


65450 


18 


1017.9 


3053.6 


y 


2874.8 


14494 


^ 


801 1.8 


67433 


H 


1046.4 


3182.6 


H 


2922.5 


14856 


51 _ 


8171.2 


69456 


H 


1075.2 


3315-3 


M 


2970.6 


15224 


yi 


8332-3 


71519 


H 


1 104.5 


3451-5 


3^ . 


3019-1 


15599 


52 


8494.8 


73622 


^9 . 


1134.1 


3591-4 


K 


3068.0 


15979 


K 


8658.9 


75767 


H 


1 164.2 


3735-0 


y2 


3II7-3 


16366 


53 


8824.8 


77952 


'A 


1 194.6 


3882.5 


% 


3166.9 


16758 


K 


8992.0 


80178 


H 


1225.4 


4033-7 


32 


3217.0 


17157 


54 


9160.8 


82448 


20 


1256.7 


4188.8 


M 


3267.4 


17563 


y 


9331-2 


84760 


M 


1288.3 


4347-8 


y-i 


3318.3 


17974 


55 


9503-2 


87114 


^ 


1320.3 


4510.9 


H 


3369.6 


18392 


y 


9676.8 


8951 1 


M 


1352.7 


4677-9 


33 


3421.2 


18817 


56 


9852.0 


91953 


21 


1385.5 


4849.1 


M 


3473-3 


19248 


y 


10029 


94438 


M 


1418.6 


5024-3 


H 


3525-7 


1.9685 


57 , 


10207 


96967 


3^ 


1452.2 


5203.7 


% 


3578.5 


20129 


yi 


10387 


99541 


H 


1486.2 


5387-4 


34,, 


3631.7 


20580 


58 


10568 


102161 


22 


1520.5 


5575-3 


M 


3685.3 


21037 


y^ 


10751 


104826 


M 


1555.3 


5767-6 


K 


3739.3 


2 1 501 


59 


10936 


107536 


^ 


1590.4 


5964-1 


35 _ 


3848.5 


22449 


K 


11122 


1 10294 


M 


1626.0 


6165.2 


3^ 


3959-2 


23425 


60 


11310 


1 13098 


^3_ 


1661.9 


6370.6 


36 


4071-5 


24429 


H 


1 1 499 


1 1 5949 


M 


1698.2 


6580.6 


K 


4185-5 


25461 


61 


1 1 690 


1 1 8847 


3^ 


1735.0 


6795-2 


37 


4300.9 


26522 


y 


1 1 882 


12 1 794 


M 


1772. I 


7014-3 


J^ 


4417-9 


27612 


62 


12076 


124789 


24 


1809.6 


7238.2 


38 


4536.5 


28731 


y^ 


12272 


127832 



3o6 



APPENDIX 
TABLE XIX.— Continued 



Diam. 


Surface. 


Volume. 


Diam. 


Surface. 


Volume. 


Diam. 


Surface. 


Volume. 


^3,, 


12469 


130925 


75^ 


17908 


225341 


88 


24328 


356819 


H 


12668 


134067 


76 


18146 


229848 


3^ 


24606 


362935 


^4,/ 


12868 


137259 


^ 


18386 


234414 


89 


24885 


369122 


^ 


13070 


I 4050 I 


77 


18626 


239041 


y2 


25165 


375378 


^5,. 


13273 


143794 


^ 


18869 


243728 


90 


25447 


381704 


3^ 


13478 


147138 


7^. 


19114 


248475 


K 


25730 


388102 


66 


13685 


150533 


^ 


19360 


253284 


91 


26016 


394570 


J^ 


13893 


153980 


79 


19607 


258155 


y2 


26302 


401 109 


^7,. 


14103 


157480 


y2 


19856 


263088 


92 


26590 


407721 


3^ 


14314 


161032 


80 


20106 


268083 


y2 


26880 


414405 


68 


14527 


164637 


y2 


20358 


273141 


93 


27172 


421161 


^A 


14741 


168295 


81 


20612 


278263 


^ 


27464 


427991 


^9,/ 


14957 


172007 


y2 


20867 


283447 


94 


27759 


434894 


3^ 


15175 


175774 


82 


21124 


288696 


H 


28055 


441871 


70 


15394 


179595 


y2 


21382 


294010 


95 


28353 


448920 


H 


15615 


18347I 


83 


21642 


299388 


^ 


28652 


456047 


71 


15837 


187402 


^ 


21904 


304831 


96 


28953 


463248 


J^ 


1 606 1 


191389 


84 


22167 


310340 


3^ 


29255 


470524 


7^1. 


16286 


195433 


^ 


22432 


315915 


97 


29559 


477874 


3^ 


16513 


199532 


85 


22698 


321556 


^ 


29865 


485302 


73,/ 


16742 


203689 


y2 


22966 


327264 


98 


30172 


492808 


3^ 


16972 


207903 


86 


23235 


333039 


3^ 


30481 


500388 


74,, 


17204 


212175 


K 


23506 


338882 


99 


30791 


508047 


3^ 


17437 


216505 


^7,/ 


23779 


344792 


H 


31 103 


515785 


75 


17672 


220894 


H 


24053 


350771 


100 

H 


31416 


523598 



APPENDIX 



307 



TABLE XX. — Weight and Specific Gravity of Metals 
(Kent's "Mechanical Engineers' Pocket-Book," eighth edition) 



Aluminum 

Antimony 

Bismuth 

Brass: Copper + Zincl 
80 20 I 

70 30 y 

60 40 

50 50 

„ j Cop. ,95 to 80 [ 

Bronze i t.. ^ f 

( Tm, 5 to 20 » 

Cadmium 

Calcium 

Chromium 

Cobalt 

Gold, pure 

Copper 

Iridium 

Iron, Cast 

Iron, Wrought 

Lead 

Manganese 

Magnesium 

f 32' 
Mercury -, 60' 

I212' 

Nickel 

Platinum 

Potassium 

Silver 

Sodium 

Steel 

Tin 

Titanium 

Tungsten 

Zinc 



Specific Gravity, 
Range According to 
Several Authorities 



2.56 to 2.71 
6.66 to 6.86 
9.74 to 9.90 



7.8 to 8.6 



8.52 
8.6 



1.58 

50 

5 to 8 

245 to 19 

69 to 8 

to 23 

to 7 

to 7 

to II 

to 8 

to I 

to 13 

13-58 

37 to 13 

279 to 8 

33 to 22 

0,865 

474 to ID 
0.97 

69* to 7 
291 to 7 

5-3 
to 17 
86 to 7 



.96 

•7 



6 

361 
92 



9 

44 

75 
62 

38 
93 
07 

511 

932 1 
409 

6 
20 



Specific 

Gravity. 

Approximate 

Mean Value 

Used in 
Calculation 
of Weight 



60 
40 
36 
20 

853 

65 
58 
O 

55 
258 

853 

38 

218 

70 

38 

75 
62 
58 
38 
8 

5 
865 

505 

97 

854 

350 

3 

3 

00 



Weight 

per 

Cubic 

Foot, 

lbs. 



166 
421 
612 



536 
523 
521 

552 

539 

98 

311 

533 

1200 

552 
1396 
450 
480 
709 

499 
109 
849 
846 

834 

548 

1347 

53 
655 

60 

489 

458 

330 

1078 

436 



Weight 
per 

Cubic 
Inch, 
lbs. 



o . 0963 

0.2439 
0.3544 

0.3103 
0.3031 
0.3017 
0.2959 

0.3195 

O.3121 
0.0570 

o . 1 804 
o . 3085 
o . 6949 

0.3195 
0.8076 
o . 2604 
0.2779 
0.4106 

0.2887 

0.0641 

0.4915 

o . 4900 

0.4828 
0.3175 
0.7758 

0.0312 

0.3791 
0.0350 
0.2834 

0.2652 

O.I9I3 
0.6243 
0.2526 



* Hard and burned. 

t Very pure and soft. The specific gravity decreases as the carbon is increased. 
In the first column of figures the lowest are usually those of cast metals, which are more or 
less porous; the highest are of metals finely rolled or drawn into wire. 



308 



APPENDIX 



TABLE XXI. — Melting-points of Various Substances 

(Kent's "Mechanical Engineers' Pocket-Book," eighth edition) 

The following figures are given by Clark (on the authority of Pouillet, 
Claudel, and Wilson), except those marked *, which are given by Prof. 
Roberts-Austen, and those marked t. which are given by Dr. J. A. Harker. 
These latter are probably the most reliable figures. 



Sulphurous acid — 148° F. 

Carbonic acid — 108 

Mercury ~39, "~ 38t 

Bromine -}- 9.5 

Turpentine 14 

Hyponitric acid 16 

Ice 32 

Nitro-glycerine 45 

Tallow 92 

Phosphorus 112 

Acetic acid 113 

Stearine 109 to 120 

Spermaceti 120 

Margaric acid 131 to 140 

Potassium 136 to 144 

Wax 142 to 154 

Stearic acid 158 

Sodium 194 to 208 

Iodine 225 

Sulphur 239 

Alloy, i>^tin, i lead. . .334, 367t 
Tin 446, 449t 



Cadmium 442° F. 

Bismuth 504 to 507 

Lead 618*, 62ot 

Zinc 779*, 786t 

Antimony 1150, 1169! 

Aluminum II57*, 1214! 

Magnesium 1200 

NaCl, common salt I472t 

Calcium Full red heat. 

Bronze 1692 

Silver 1733*, I75it 

Potassium sulphate. . . 1859*, 1958* 

Gold 1913*, I947t 

Copper 1929*, I943t 

Nickel 26oot 

Cast-iron, white 1922, 2075! 

" " gray 2012 to 2786, 2228* 
Steel 2372 to 2532* 

" hard 2570*; mild, 2687 

Wrought-iron . .2732 to 2912, 2737* 

Palladium 2732* 

Platinum 3227*, 3iiot 



APPENDIX 



309 



TABLE XXII.— Strength of Ropes. 

(A. S. Newell & Co., Birkenhead. Klein's Translation of Weisbach, 
vol. iii, part i, sec. 2) 



Hemp 


Iron 


Steel 




Girth, 
Inches 


Weight 

per 
Fathom, 
Pounds 


Girth, 

Inches 


Weight 

per 
Fathom, 
Pounds 


Girth, 
Inches 


Weight 

per 
Fathom, 
Pounds 


Tensile 
Strength, 
Gross Tons 


2M 


2 


I 


I 






2 






IJ^ 


^Yi 


I 


I 


3 


3M 


4 


^Y^ 


2 






4 






I'M 


21^ 


I^ 


IJ^ 


5 


4J^ 


5 


13^ 


3 






6 






2 


iYi 


I^ 


2 


7 


53^ 


7 


23^ 
2I4 


4 

4J^ 


iM 


2H 


8 
9 


6 


9 


2^ 

2K 


5 

53^ 


iJ^ 


3 


10 
II 


6K 


ID 


2^-8 


6 


2 


3^ 


12 






2M 


6^ 


2^ 


4 


13 


7 


12 


2% 

3 


7 
73^ 


2M 


4J^ 


14 
15 


iVi 


14 


33^ 
3M 


8 


2^ 


5 


16 
17 


8 


16 


3H 


9 


2Y2 


53^ 


18 






3M 


10 


25^ 


6 


20 


Wi 


18 


35^ 
3M 


II 
12 


2M 


6^ 


22 
24 


93^ 


22 


z% 


13 


3M 


8 


26 


10 


26 


4 


14 






28 


II 


30 


4M 


15 
16 


3^ 


9 


30 

32 






43^ 


18 


3^ 


10 


36 


12 


34 


^y% 


20 


3M 


12 


40 



310 



APPENDIX 



TABLE XXIIl. — Pitch, Breaking, Proof, and Working Strains of 

Chains 









(Bradlee & Co., Phi 


adelphia 


) 










a 

X 


k4 

a 
a 
< 


X! 

3 



D. B. G. Special Crane 


Crane 


d 

a 
•3 

ji 
U 

"o 

CI 
N 

CO 


I 

"0 



c 

s . 

2S 

< 


2 
So 

ed-O - 
C ca m 




£ 

H 



< 


2 
t .— 

ca-d . 

C (9 ^ 




H 


If 


M 


it 


1.932 


3,864 


1,288 


1,680 


3,360 


1,120 


A 


§i 


I 


iH 


2,898 


5,796 


1,932 


2,520 


5,040 


1,680 


Vs 


§i 


IH 


lA 


4,186 


8,372 


2,790 


3,640 


7,280 


2,420 


A 


lA 


2 


i3^ 


5,796 


11,592 


3,864 


5,040 


10,080 


3,360 


y2 


itt 


2>^ 


lit 


7,728 


15,456 


5,152 


6,720 


13,440 


4,487 


A 


iM 


3To 


2 


9,660 


19,320 


6,440 


8,400 


16,800 


5,600 


Vs 


iff 


. 1 

4to 


2A 


11,914 


23,828 


7,942; 10,360 


20,720 


6,900 


ii 


lil 


5 


2^ 


14,490 


28,980 


9,660 


12,600 


25,200 


8,400 


H 


lit 


61^ 


2A 


17,388 


34,776 


11,592 


15,120 


30,240 


10,087 


if 


2h 


6rV 


2M 


20,286 


40,572 


13,524 


17,640 


35,280 


11,760 


Vs 


2A 


8^ 


2it 


22,484 


44,968 


14,989 


20,440 


40,880 


13,620 


if 


2A 


9 


3A 


25,872 


51,744 


17,248 


23,520 


47,040 


15,680 


I 


2K 


lOj^ 


3H 


29,568 


59,136 


19,712 


26,880 


53,760 


17,927 


lA 


2^ 


12 


3A 


33,264 


66,538 


22,176 


30,240 


60,480 


20,160 


iVs 


2K 


13^8 


3« 


37,576 


75,152 


25,050 


34,160 


68,320 


22,770 


lA 


3tb 


I3T0 


4 


41,888 


83,776 


27,925 


38,080 


76,160 


25,380 


iM 


3J^ 


16 


4A 


46,200 


92,400 


30,800 


42,000 


84,000 


28,003 


lA 


2>y% 


16^ 


4^ 


50,512 


101,024 


33,674 


45,920 


91,840 


30,617 


iVs 


3A 


19M 


4ft 


55,748 


1 1 1 ,496 


37,165 


50,680 


101,360 


33,780 


i^ 


3ii 


i9to 


4% 


60,368 


120,736 


40,245 


54,880 


109,760 


36,583 


^¥2 


33^ 


23 


5M 


66,528 


133,056 


44,352 


60,480 


120,960 


40,327 


lA 


4 


25 


5ft 


70,762 


141,524 


47,174 


65,520 


131,140 


43,187 


1% 


4M 


31 


53^ 


82,320 


164,640 


54,880 








2 


5M 


40 


6^ 


107,520 


215,040 


71,680 








2M 


6M 


52M 


IV^ 


136,080 


272,160 


90,720 








2)^ 


7 


64^ 


w% 


168,000 


336,000 


112,000 








2% 


7M 


73 


9H 


193,088 


386,176 


128,725 








3 


7% 


86 


9K 


217,728 


435,456 


145,152 









The distance from center of one link to center of next is equal to the inside length of link, 
but in practice j'j in. is allowed for weld. This is approximate, and, where exactness is re- 
quired, chain should be made so. 

For Chain Sheaves. — The diameter, if possible, should be not less than thirty times the 
diameter of chain used. 

Example. — For i-inch chain use 30-inch sheaves. 



APPENDIX 



311 



TABLE XXIV. — Analyses of Fire-clays 
(Kent's "Mechanical Engineers' Pocket-Book," eighth edition) 



Brand 



Mt. Savage' 

Mt. Savage^ 

Mt. Savage' 

Mt. Savage* 

Strasburg, O 

Cumberland, Md . . 
Woodbridge, N. J . . 
Carter Co., Ky . . . . 
Clearfield Co., Pa. . 

Clearfield^ and 

Cambria Cos., Pa.' 
Clinton Co., Pa. . . . 
Clarion Co., Pa.. . . 
Farrandsville, Pa. . . 
St. Louis Co., Mo.. 
Stourbridge, Eng. . . 






w 



. . . so 

■ IS S6 

■ 53 44 
...|S6 

ss 

56 
67 

68 



0.45 
I. IS 



1.46 



■n 
< 






744 
50 
57S 
68 



[.SO 
[ . 12 
[.08 
).S9 



Tr. 

0.17 



3710 
14 
85 
70 



60I0.40 

67 

0.28 
3 

0.07 
o. 20 
0.23 
o. 17 
0.08 
0.08 
0.41 
Tr. 






Trace 
0.80 
0.247 



0.3010. 29 
30 
0.24 



o. 12 
1. 00 
I. IS 
0.47 
0.41 
0.02 
0.07 
Tr. 



2.54 



2.52 
1.74 
1 . 26 
1 .07 
0.90 



E 1) 



1. 6s 
1 .92 
1-47 
0.88 
2.79 
3-97 
4-33 
4.02 
4-73 



4-SS 
3.47 
3.59 
S-I4 
3.8s 



Loss 



SO2 0.19 



1 Mass. Inst, of Technology, 1871. = Report on Clays of New Jersey. Prof. G. H. Cook, 
1877. 3 Second Geological Survey of Penna., 1878. * Dr. Otto Wuth (2 samples), 1885. 
5 Flint clay from Clearfield and Cambria counties. Pa., average of hundreds of analyses by 
Harbison-Walker Refractories Co., Pittsburg, Pa. ^ Same material calcined. All other 
analyses from catalogue of Stowe-Fuller Co., 1907- 



312 



APPENDIX 



TABLE XXV.— Sizes of Fire-Brick 



9x4>^x2)^ 




Arch 



'iyfizH-m 



7 




f9xS>ix(4>i8>^y 



^ 




9-inch straight 9 X 4K X 2K inches. 

Soap 9 X 2K X 2K 

Checker 9X3 X 3 

No. I Split 9 X4K X iK 

No. 2 Split 9 X 4K X 2 

Jamb 9 X 4K X 2K 

No. I key 9 X2K thick X 4H to 4 inches. 

wide. 112 bricks to circle 12 feet inside diam. 
No/ 2 key 9 X2K thick X 4K to 3K inches 

wide. 6s bricks to circle 6 ft. inside diam. 
No. 3 key 9 X2K thick X 4K to 3 inches 

wide. 41 bricks to circle 3 ft. inside diam. 
No. 4 key 9 X 2K thick X 4K to 2K inches 

wide. 26 bricks to circle iK ft. inside diam. 
No. I wedge (or bullhead) 9 X 4K wide, 2 X 2K to 2 in. 

thick, tapering lengthwise. 102 bricks to circle 5 ft. inside 

diam. 
No. 2 wedge 9 X 4'A X 2K to iK in. thick. 

63 bricks to circle 2yi ft. inside diam. 
No. I arch 9 X 4K X 2K to 2 inches thick, 

tapering breadthwise. 72 bricks to circle 4 ft. inside diam. 
No. 2 arch 9 X 4K X 2K to i^. 

42 bricks to circle 2 ft. inside diam. 

No. I skew 9 to 7 X 4K to 2K. 

Bevel on one end. 
No. 2 skew 9 X 2K X 4>^ to 2K. 

Equal bevel on both edges. 
No. 3 skew 9 X 2K X 4K to iK- 

Taper on one edge. 
24-inch circle 8 J< to s H X 4K X 2M. 

Edges curved, 9 bricks line a 24-inch circle. 
36-inch circle S^' to 6>^ X 4K X 2><. 

13 bricks line a 36-inch circle. 
48-inch circle 8J< to 7K X 4K X 2K. 

17 bricks line a 48-inch circle. 

i3K-inch straight 13K X 2K X 6. 

i3K-inch key No. i 13^2 X 2K X 6 to 5 inch. 

90 bricks turn a 12-ft. circle. 
i3>2-inch key No. 2 13K X 2}^ X 6 to 4^5 inch. 

52 bricks turn a 6-ft. circle. 

Bridge wall. No. i 13 X 6K X 6. 

Bridge v/all. No. 2 13 X 6K X 3- 

Mill tile 18, 20, or 24 X 6 X 3. 

Stoke-hole tiles 18, 20, or 24 X 9 X 4. 

18-inch block 18 X 9 X 6. 

Flat back 9 X 6 X 2K. 

Flat back arch 9 X6 X 3K to 2K- 

22-inch radius, 56 bricks to circle. 

Locomotive tile 32 X 10 X 3. 36 X 8X3. 

34 X 10 X 3. 40 X 10 X 3. 

34 X 8 X 3. 
Tiles, slabs, and blocks, various sizes 12 to 30 in. long, 8 to 
30 in. wide, 2 to 6 in. thick. 



Cupola brick, 4 and 6 in. high, 4 and 6 in. radial width, to line shells 23 to 66 in. diameter. 

A 9-inch straight brick weighs 7 lb. and contains 100 cubic inches. (= 120 lb. per cubic 
foot. Specific gravity 1.93.) 

One cubic foot of wall requires 17 9-inch bricks, one cubic yard requires 460. Where 
keys, wedges, and other "shapes" are used, add 10 per cent in estimating] the number 
required. 

One ton of fire-clay should be sufficient to lay 3,000 ordinary bricks. To secure the best 
results, fire-bricks should be laid in the same clay from which they are manufactured. It 
should be used as a thin paste, and not as mortar. The thinner the joint the better the fur- 
nace wall. In ordering bricks, the service for which they are required should be stated. 



APPENDIX 



313 



TABLE XXVI. — Number of Fire-brick Required for Various 

Circles 





Key Bricks | 


Arch Bricks 


Wedge Bricks 


















of 
Circle 


060 
Z Z ^ 


6 


6 d 


6s 


2 

c 


> d 

: Is 


J3 





H 


ft. in. 










I 6 


2^ 


. . . . 2S . . 














2 


17 13 •• 

9 25 

.... 38 .... 


.... 30 4 

•••• 34 3 
.... 38 2 


2 .... 




42 . . 








2 6 


I 18 




49 6( 

57 4* 


3 .... 




60 


3 


I 36 




i 20 




68 


3 6 


32 10 


.... 42 I 


54 




64 3< 


3 40 




76 


4 


....25 21 


.... 46 . . 


■• 72 




ji 2. 


^ 59 




83 


4 6 


....19 32 


.... 51 .. 


.. 72 


8 


80 i: 


> 79 




91 


5 


. ... 13 42 


• ■ • . 55 • ■ 


.. 72 


15 


87.. 


• 98 




98 


5 6 


.... 6 53 


.... 59 . . 


.. 72 


23 


95 ■■ 


• 98 


8 


106 


6 


63 


.... 63 . . 


.. 72 


30 


102 . . 


• 98 


15 


113 


6 6 


58 


9 67 .. 


.. 72 


38 


no . . 


, 98 


23 


121 


7 


52 


19 71 .. 


■• 72 


45 


117 .. 


• 98 


30 


128 


7 6 


47 


29 76 . . 


.. 72 


53 


125 .. 


■ 98 


38 


136 


8 


42 


38 80. . 


.. 72 


60 


132 .. 


• 98 


46 


144 


8 6 


2>7 


47 84 . . 


.. 72 


68 


140 . . 


• 98 


53 


151 


9 


31 


57 88 . . 


■■ 72 


75 


147 .. 


• 98 


61 


159 


9 6 


26 


66 92 . . 


.. 72 


83 


155 • • 


. 98 


68 


166 


10 


21 


76 97 . . 


.. 72 


90 


162 .. 


. 98 


76 


174 


ID 6 


16 


85 lOI . . 


•■ 72 


98 


170 .. 


• 98 


83 


181 


II 


II 


94 105 . . 


.. 72 


105 


177 .. 


• 98 


91 


189 


II 6 


5 


104 109 . . 


.. 72 


113 


185.. 


. 98 


98 


196 


12 




113 113 •• 


.. 72 


121 


193 •• 


• 98 


106 


204 


12 6 




117 117 . . 















For larger circles than 12 feet use 113 No. i Key and as many 9-inch 
brick as may be needed in addition. 



314 



APPENDIX 



TABLE XXVII. — Weight of Castings Determined from Weight 

OF Pattern 

(Rose's " Pattern-makers' Assistant ") 



A Pattern Weighing One 
Pound, Made of — 



Mahogany — Nassau 
" Honduras 

" Spanish. 

Pine, red 

" white 

" yellow 



Cast- 
iron. 

lbs. 
10.7 
12.9 

8.5 
12.5 
16.7 
14. 1 



Will Weigh when Cast in 



Zinc. 



lbs. 
10.4 
12.7 
8.2 
12. 1 
16. 1 
136 



Copper. 



lbs. 
12 

15 
10 

14 
19 
16 



Yellow 
Brass. 



lbs. 
12.2 
14.6 

9 7 
14.2 
19.0 
16.0 



Gun- 
metal. 



lbs. 
12.5 
15- 



TABLE XXVIII. — Dimensions of Foundry Ladles 

The following table gives the dimensions, inside the lining, of ladles from 
25 lbs. to 16 tons capacity. All the ladles are supposed to have straight 
sides. {Am. Mack.) 



Capacity 


Diam. 


Depth 


Capacity 


Diam. 


Depth 


Capacity 


Diam. 


Depth 




in. 


in. 




in. 


in. 




in. 


in. 


16 tons 


54 


56 


3 tons 


31 


32 


300 lb. 


IlM 


IlH 


14 " 


52 


53 


2 " 


27 


28 


250 " 


loM 


II 


12 " 


49 


50 


iH" 


24H 


25 


200 " 


ID 


loH 


10 " 


46 


48 


I ton 


22 


22 


150 " 


9 


9K 


8 " 


43 


44 


H " 


20 


20 


100 " 


8 


83^ 


6 " 


39 


40 


y2 '■ 


17 


17 


75 " 


7 


7J^ 


4 " 


34 


35 


M " 


I3M 


I3H 


50" 


6^ 


6y2 



APPENDIX 



315 



TABLE XXIX. — Composition of Alloys in Every-day Use in 
Brass Foundries 



(American Machinist) 





Cop- 
per 


Zinc 


Tin 


Lead 




Admiralty metal 


lbs. 
87 


lbs. 
5 


lbs. 
8 


lbs. 


For parts of engines on board 
naval vessels. 


Bell metal 


16 




4 




Bells for ships and factories. 


Brass (yellow).. . 


16 


8 




^ 


For plumbers, ship and house 
brass work. 


Bush metal 

Gun-metal 


64 
32 


8 
I 


4 
3 


4 


For bearing bushes for shafting. 
For pumps and other hydraulic 


Steam metal. . . 


20 


I 


I^ 


I 


purposes. 
Castings subjected to .steam 


Hard gun-metal . 
Muntz metal.. . . 


16 
60 

92 


40 


2J^ 




pressure. 
For heavy bearings. 
Metal from which bolts and 


Phosphor bronze. 


8pho 


s. tin 


nuts are forged, valve spin- 
dles, etc. 
For valves, pumps, and general 
work. 




90 




ID " 




For cog and worm wheels, 
bushes, axle bearings, slide 
valves, etc. 


Brazing metal. . . 


16 
50 


3 
50 






Flanges for copper pipes. 
Solder for the above flanges. 


" solder. . . 













3i6 



APPENDIX 



TABLE XXX. — Useful Alloys of Copper, Tin, and Zinc 
(Selected from numerous sources) 



U. Navy Dept. journal boxes j _ 

and guide-gibs i ~ 

Tobin bronze 

Naval brass 

Composition, U. S. Navy 

Brass bearings (J. Rose) 

Gun-metal 



Tough brass for engines 

Bronze for rod-boxes (Lafond) 

" " pieces subject to shock. . 

Red brass parts 

per cent. 

Bronze for pump casings (Lafond) . 
" " eccentric straps " 

" " shrill whistles 

" " low-toned whistles 

Art bronze, dull red fracture 

Gold bronze 

Bearing metal 



English brass of A.D. 1504 . 



Copper. 


Tin. 


{ 6. 
! 82.8 


I 


13-8 


58.22 


2.30 


62 


I 


88 


10 


U4 


8 


U7.7 


II. 


92.5 


5 


91 


7 


87.75 


9-75 


85 


5 


83 


2 


ii3 
176.5 


2 


II. 8 


82 


16 


83 


15 


20 


I 


87 


4-4 


88 


10 


84 


14 


80 


18 


81 


17 


97 


2 


89.5 


2. 1 


89 


8 • 


89 


2 'A 


86 


H 


85M 


12% 


80 


18 


79 


18 


74 


9H 


64 


3 



Zinc. 



3^ parts. 

3.4 per cent. 
39.48 " " 

37 " " 
2 " " 

1 parts. 

1 .3 percent. 

2.5 " " 

2 " " 
2.5 " " 

10 " " 

15 " " 

2 parts. 
1 1.7 percent. 

2 slightly malleable. 

1.50 0.50 lead. 



4-3 4-3 
2 



.2.0 antimony, 
.2.0 " 



I 

5.6 2.8 lead. 
3 



2 
2 

2}4 ^ lead. 

9M 7 lead. 

29X2 3H lead. 



APPENDIX 



317 



TABLE XXXI. — Composition of Various Grades of Rolled 
Brass, etc. 

(Kent's " Mechanical Engineers' Pocket-Book," eighth edition) 



Trade Name 


Copper 


Zinc 


Tin 


Lead 


Nickel 


Common high brass 

Yellow metal 


61.5 
60 

eeVz 
80 
60 
60 

66% 
6iJ^ 


38.5 
40 

33 M 
20 
40 
40 

33^ 
201^ 














Cartridge brass 








Low brass 








Clock brass 

Drill rod 


IJ^ 


^V2 
xVi to 2 




Spring brass 

18 per cent German silver 






18 









The above table was furnished by the superintendent of a mill in Connecticut in 1894. 
He says: While each mill has its own proportions for various mixtures, depending upon the 
purposes for which the product is intended, the figures given are about the average standard. 
Thus, between cartridge brass with sal's per cent zinc and common high brass with 38K 
per cent zinc, there are any number of different mixtures Icnown generally as "high brass," or 
specifically as "spinning brass," "drawing brass," etc., wherein the amount of zinc is 
dependent upon the amount of scrap used in the mixture, the degree of working to which 
the metal is to be subjected, etc. 



TABLE XXXI L — Shrinkage of Castings 
(Kent's " Mechanical Engineers' Pocket-Book," eighth edition) 

The allowance necessary for shrinkage varies for different kinds of metal, 
and the different conditions under which they arc cast. For castings where 
the thickness runs about one inch, cast under ordinary conditions, the fol- 
lowing allowance can be made: 



For cast-iron, }/^ inch per foot. 
" brass, ^ " " " 
" steel, M " " " 
" mal. iron, }/^ " " " 



For zinc, 

" tin, t" 

" aluminum, t 
" britannia, ^ 



j^ inch per foot. 



Thicker castings, under the same conditions, will shrink less, and thinner 
ones more, than this standard. The quality of the material and the man- 
ner of molding and cooling will ^Iso make a difference. 

Mr. Keep {Trans. A. S. M. E., vol. xvi) gives the following "approxi- 
mate key for regulating foundry mixtures" so as to produce a shrinkage 
of 1^ in. per ft. in castings of different sections: 

Size of casting ]/2 i 2 3 4 in. sq. 

Silicon required, per cent. .. . 3.25 2.75 2.25 1.75 1.25 percent 
Shrinkage of a >^ -in. test-bar 0.125 0.135 0.145 0.155 0.165 in- per ft. 



3i8 



APPENDIX 



TABLE XXXIII. — Sizes of Pipes for Tumbling Barrels, Inches 

Diameter 

(Data Sheet of The Foundry, Feb., 1910) 



Diameter 

of 

Mill, 

Inches 



24 
30 
36 
42 
48 





Length of Barrel, Inches 




36 


48 


60 


72 


84 


4 


4 


5 


6 


6 


4 


4 


5 


6 


6 


5 


5 


6 


6 


7 


6 


6 


6 


7 


8 


6 


6 


7 


8 


8 



TABLE XXXIV. — Diameter of Exhaust Fan Inlets for Tumbling 

Barrels 

(Data Sheet of The Foundry, Feb., 19 10) 



Diameter 








Number of Mills 
Inlet Diameter, Inches 










to Mill, 




















Inches 


I 


2 


3 


4 


s 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


4 


4M 


6H 


63^ 


8H 


8K 


loM 


loK 


12 


12 


12 


5 


53^ 


6M 


8H 


loH 


12 


12 


14 


14 


16 


16 


6 


6^ 


8M 


loYi 


12 


14 


14 


16 


18 


18 


20 


7 


6^ 


loK 


12 


14 


16 


18 


18 


20 


22 


24 


8 


m 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


24 


27 



APPENDIX 



319 



TABLE XXXV. — Steel Pressure Blowers for Cupolas (Average 

Application) 

(American Blower Co.) 



u 


"3 


J! 
0. 

^& 
... 


c'3 



5.S 

4) 

. a 
.2 a 
Q 





Oz. 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 







5'" 


In. 


3.46 


5-19 


6.92 


8.65 


10.38 


12. 12 


13.83 


15-56 


6 


H.P. 

constant 
at 1000 
cu. ft. 


1.242 


1.86 


2.48 


3.10 


3.73 


4-3S; 4-95 

i 


5-58 


I 


i4y2 


1% 


3.80 


S% 


0.18 


R.P.M. 
C.F. 
H.P. 


i960 

361 

0.45 


2400 

434 

0.81 


2770 
500 

1.24 


3095 

560 

1.74 


3390 

610 

2.28 


3666 3915 

665 708 

2.891 3-51 


4150 

752 

4.20 


2 


17 


1% 


4-45 


6% 


0.248s 


R.P.M. 
C.F. 
H.P. 


1675 

498 

0.62 


20SO 
600 
1 . 12 


2362 
691 
1.72 


2645 

774 
2.40 


2895 

843 

3-15 


3130 3340 

916 978 

3-99J 4-84 


3540 
1038 
5-79 


3 


191/2 


1% 


S.ii 


7% 


0.327 


R.P.M. 
C.F. 
H.P. 


1460 

655 

0.82 


1785 

789 

1-47 


2060 

910 

2.26 


2300 
1018 
3.16 


2520 
mo 
4-15 


2730 
1207 
5-25 


2910 
1286 
6.36 


308s 
136s 
7-62 


4 


22 

24y2 
27 


2y8 


5. 76 


8% 


0.4176 


R.P.M. 
C.F. 
H.P. 


1292 
838 
1 .04 


1582 
1006 

1.87 


182s 
1162 
2.88 


2040 
1300 
4-03 


2235 

1415 
5.28 


2420 
1540 
6.70 


2585 
1643 
8.14 


2740 
1746 
9-74 


5 


2% 


6.41 


9% 


0.519 


R.P.M. 
C.F. 
H.P. 


1162 
1040 
1.30 


1422 
1250 
2.33 


1640 
1442 
3.58 


1835 
1612 
5-00 


2010 
1760 
6.57 


2175 
1915 
8.34 


2320 

2040 

10.10 


2460 

2166 

12.10 


6 


2% 


7.06 


10% 


0.63 


R.P.M. 
C.F. 
H.P. 


lOSS 
1262 
I-S7 


1290 
1520 
2.83 


1490 
1750 
4-34 


1665 
i960 
6.08 


1825 
2135 
7.96 


I97S 

2375 

10.10 


210S 

2475 

12. 2S 


2233 

2630 

14. 12 


7 


32 


3% 


8.39 


i2y2 


0.852 


R.P.M. 
C.F. 
H.P. 


889 
170S 
2. 12 


1087 
2055 
3.83 


1255 
2366 
5.86 


1405 
2650 
8.23 


1535 

2890 

10.78 


1660 
3140 
13.66 


1775 
3350 
16.60 


1880 
3555 
19-83 


8 


37 


3% 


9.70 


14 


1.069 


R.P.M. 
C.F. 
H.P. 


769 
2140 
2.66 


940 
2575 
4-79 


1085 
2970 
7.36 


1212 
3325 
10.3 


1328 
3620 
13.5 


1446 
3940 
17. IS 


1533 

4200 

20.00 


1625 

4460 

24.90 


9 


42 


4% 


10.98 


16 


1.396 


R.P.M. 
C.F. 
H.P. 


679 
2800 
3.48 


830 
3370 
6.27 


958 
3880 
9.63 


1072 
4340 
13.46 


1172 
4730 
17.65 


1270 

5150 

22.40 


I3S5 

5500 

27.2s 


1435 

5825 

32.50 


10 


47 


4% 


12.30 


i7y2 


1.67 


R.P.M. 
C.F. 
H.P. 


606 
3350 

4-17 


742 

402s 

7.5 


855 
4640 
II. 5 


956 

5200 

16. 12 


1048 

5660 

21 . 12 


1133 

6160 

26.80 


1210 

6570 

32.55 


1280 

6970 

38.90 


II 


52 


5% 


13.6 


i9y4 


2.02 


R.P.M. 
C.F. 
H.P. 


548 
4050 
5-03 


670 
4870 
9.06 


774 
S6io 
13.9 


865 
6290 
19-5 


947 

68so 

25-55 


I02S 

7450 

32.40 


1093 

7950 

39-33 


1 160 

8440 
47-10 


12 


57 


S% 


14.92 


21 


2.40s 


R.P.M. 
C.F. 
H.P. 


500 
4820 
6.00 


611 

5800 

10.78 


70s 
6700 
16.62 


789 

7490 

23-25 


863 

8160 

30.4s 


934 

8870 

38.60 


996 

9460 

46.8s 


1056 
10040 
56.10 



320 



APPENDIX 



TABLE XXXVI. — Steel Pressure Blowers for Cupolas (Average 

Application) 

{Continued) 



U4 






a <u 



h 

.2 a 
Q 


3 
* rr 

<: 


Oz. 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 




In. 


17.28 


19.02 


20.75 


22. s 


24.22 


25-95 


27.66 


o 

6 
2 


H.P. 
constant 
at 1000 
cu. ft. 


6.20 


6.82 


7-44 


8.07 


8.69 


9-30 


9-92 




17 


1% 


4.45 


6% 


0.248s 


R.P.M. 
C.F. 
H.P. 


3740 
1093 
6.78 


3920 
1148 
7-83 


4090 

1 196 

8.9 










?. 






























3 


iqVs 


1% 


5. II 


7% 


0.327 


R.P.M. 
C.F. 
H.P. 


3255 
1440 
8.93 


3415 

ISIO 
10.3 


3570 

1575 

11.72 


3710 

1642 

13 -26 


3955 

1700 

14-75 


3985 
1762 
16.4 


4120 

1820 

18. OS 


4 


22 


zVs 


5.76 


8% 


0.4176 


R.P.M. 
C.F. 
H.P. 


2890 

1840 

11.40 


3030 

1930 

13.16 


3163 

2012 

14.96 


3290 

2095 
16.9 


3420 
2175 
18.9 


3535 

22S0 

20.9 


3650 
2325 
23-1 


S 


24V2 


2% 


6.41 


9% 


0.519 


R.P.M. 
C.F. 
H.P. 


2595 

2280 

14-13 


2720 

2395 

16.33 


2845 
2500 
18.6 


2960 

260S 

21. OS 


3075 

2700 

23-45 


3180 
2800 

26. OS 


3280 

288s 

28.66 


6 


27 


2% 


7.06 


103/4 


0.63 


R.P.M. 
C.F. 
H.P. 


2355 

2770 

17.18 


2470 

2910 

19-8S 


2580 
3033 
22.6 


2685 

3165 

25.55 


2790 

3280 

28. so 


288s 

3395 
31-55 


2980 
3500 
34-7 


7 


32 


3% 


8.39 


12^2 


0.8f2 


R.P.M. 
C.F. 
H.P. 


1983 

37S0 

23-25 


2080 

3930 

26.80 


2170 
4110 
30.6 


2260 
4276 
34-5 


2345 
4430 
38.5 


2430 
4590 

42.7 


2SI0 

4730 
47. 


8 


37 


3% 


9.70 


14 


1.069 


R.P.M. 
C.F. 
H.P. 


1715 

4700 

29-15 


1800 

4930 

33-66 


1880 

S150 

38.33 


1955 

5360 

43-25 


2030 

5S6o 

48.30 


2100 

5760 

53.55 


2170 
5940 
59. 


9 


42 


4% 


10.98 


16 


1.396 


R.P.M. 
C.F. 
H.P. 


1515 

6150 

38.15 


1590 

6450 

44.00 


1660 

6730 

50.15 


1728 

7010 

56.60 


•1792 
7270 
63.2 


1855 
7525 
70. 


1916 
7760 
77. 


10 


47 


4% 


12.30 


I7y2 


1.67 


R.P.M. 
C.F. 
H.P. 


1352 

7350 

45-60 


1418 

7715 

S2.66 


1480 
8os5 
60.0 


1540 

8390 

67.66 


1600 
8700 
75-6 


1655 
9010 
83-9 


1710 

9300 

92.25 


II 


52 


5% 


13.6 


i9y4 


2.02 


R.P.M. 
C.F. 
H.P. 


1222 

8900 

55-20 


1282 
9330 
63.6 


1340 
9750 

72. S 


1393 

10140 

82.0 


1447 

I0S20 
91-5 


1498 
10890 
101.2 


1546 

11220 

III. 33 


12 


57 


5% 


14.92 


21 


2.40s 


R.P.M. 
C.F. 
H.P. 


1113 
10580 
65-5 


1 168 
moo 
75-70 


1220 
1 1600 
86.33 


1270 
12080 
97-5 


I318 
I2S20 
109.0 


1363 
12960 
120. s 


1410 

13380 

132.75 



APPENDIX 



321 



TABLE XXXVII. — Capacity of Sturtevant High-Pressure Blowers 



Number of 
Blower 


Capacity in Cubic Feet 

per Minute, Vj-lb. 

Pressure 


Revolutions per 
Minute 


Inside Diam. 

of Inlet 
and Outlet, 

Inches 


Approximate 
Weight, 
Pounds* 


000 


I to 5 


200 to 


1000 


I^ 


40 


00 


5 to 25 


375 to 


800 


^¥2 


80 





25 to 45 


370 to 


800 


23^ 


140 


I 


45 to 130 


240 to 


600 


3 


330 


2 


130 to 225 


300 to 


500 


4 


550 


3 


225 to 325 


380 to 


525 


4 


760 


4 


325 to 560 


350 to 


565 


6 


1,080 


5 


560 to 1 ,030 


300 to 


475 


8 


1,670 


6 


1,030 to 1,540 


290 to 


415 


10 


2,500 


7 


1,540 to 2,300 


280 to 


410 


10 


3.200 


8 


2,300 to 3,300 


265 to 


375 


12 


4,700 


9 


3,300 to 4,700 


250 to 


350 


16 


6,100 


10 


4,700 to 6,000 


260 to 


330 


16 


8,000 


II 


6,000 to 8,500 


220 to 


310 


20 


12,100 


12 


8,500 to 11,300 


190 to 


250 


24 


18,700 


13 


11,300 to 15,500 


190 to 


260 


30 


22,700 



Of blower for y^ lb. pressure. 



322 



APPENDIX 



TABLE XXXVIII. — Speed, Capacities, and Horse-power of 
Sirocco Fans 



(American Blower Co.) 

The figures given represent dynamic pressures in oz. per sq. in. 
deduct 28.8 per cent; for velocity pressure, deduct 71.2 per cent. 



For static pressure, 







^. 


V2 
Oz. 


Oz. 


I 
Oz. 


Oz. 


1V2 
Oz. 


1% 
Oz. 


2 
Oz. 


21/2 
Oz. 


3 
Oz. 


in. 
6 


Cu. ft. 
R.P.JVI. 
B.H.P. 


155 
1,145 
.0185 


220 
1.615 
.052 


270 
1,980 
.095 


310 
2,290 

• 147 


350 
2.560 
.205 


380 
2,800 
.270 


410 

3.025 

•34 


440 
3.230 

.42 


490 

3,616 

.58 


540 

3,960 

.76 


9 


Cu. ft. 
R.P.M. 
B.H.P. 


350 
762 
.042 


500 

1,076 

.118 


610 
1,320 
.216 


700 
1.524 
•333 


790 
1.700 
■ 463 


860 
1,866 
.610 


930 
2,020 

• 77 


1,000 

2,152 

.95 


1,110 
2,408 
1.32 


1,220 
2,640 
1-73 


12 


Cu. ft. 
R.P.M. 
B.H.P. 


625 
572 
.074 


880 
808 
.208 


1,080 
990 
.381 


1.250 
1. 145 
.588 


1,400 

1,280 

.82 


1.530 
1,400 
1.08 


1,650 
1.512 
1^36 


1,770 
1,615 
1.66 


1.970 
1,808 
2.32 


2,170 
1,980 
3-05 


IS 


Cu. ft. 
R.P.M. 
B.H.P. 


975 
456 
.115 


1,380 
645 
.326 


1,690 
790 
.600 


1,950 
912 
• 923 


2,180 
1,020 
1.29 


2,400 
1,120 
1 .69 


2,590 
1,210 
2.14 


2,760 
1,290 
2.61 


3.090 

1.444 
3.6s 


3,390 

1,580 

4-8 


18 


Cu. ft. 
R.P.M. 
B.H.P. 

Cu. ft. 
R.P.M. 
B.H.P. 


1,410 
381 
.167 

1,92s 
326 
.227 


1,990 
538 

.470 


2,440 
660 
.862 


2,820 

762 

1.33 


3.160 

850 

1.85 


3.450 
933 

2.43 


3,720 
1,010 
3.07 


3,980 
1,076 
3-75 


4.450 
1.204 
5-25 


4,880 

1.320 

6.9 


21 


2,710 
462 
.640 


3.310 

565 

1. 17 


3,850 
6S2 
1. 81 


4,290 

730 

2.53 


4,700 

800 

3-33 


5.070 

864 

4.18 


5.420 

924 

5-II 


6,060 
1,032 
7. IS 


6,620 

1,130 

9-4 


24 


Cu. ft. 
R.P.M. 
B.H.P. 


2,500 
286 
.296 


3.540 
404 
.832 


4.340 
495 
1.53 


5,000 

572 

2.35 


5,600 

640 

3.28 


6,120 

700 

4-32 


6,620 
756 

5.44 


7,080 

807 

6.64 


7,900 
904 
9.3 


8,680 
990 
12.2 


27 


Cu. ft. 
R.P.M. 
B.H.P. 


3.I7S 

• 254 

• 373 


4.490 

359 

1-05 

5.520 

322 

1-30 

7.950 

269 

1.87 


5.500 
440 
1.94 
6,770 
395 
2.40 

9.750 
330 

3-44 


6,350 
508 

2.98 

7.820 
456 

3.68 

11,300 

381 

5.30 


7,100 
568 

4-l6 

8,750 
510 

5.15 

12,640 

425 

7.40 


7.780 
622 
5.48 
9,600 
560 
6.75 


8,400 

672 

6.90 

10,350 

604 

8.53 


8,980 

718 

8.44 


10,050 
804 
II. 8 


11,000 

" 880 

IS-S 


30 


Cu. ft. 
R.P.M. 
B.H.P. 

Cu. ft. 
R.P.M. 
B.H.P. 


3.910 
228 
.460 

5.650 

190 

.66s 


11,050 

645 

10.4 


12 ,350 

722 

14.5 


13,550 

790 

19. 1 


36 


13,800 

466 

9.72 


14,900 

504 

12.25 


15.900 

538 

iS-0 


17,800 

602 

20.9 


19.500 
660 

27. s 


42 


Cu. ft. 
R.P.M. 
B.H.P. 


7.700 

163 

.903 


10,850 

231 

2.55 


13.300 

283 

4.69 


15.400 

326 

7.24 


17,170 

365 

10. 1 


18,800 
400 
13.3 


20,300 
432 
16.7 


21,700 

462 

20.4 


24,250 

516 

28.5 


26,600 

566 

37. 5 


48 


Cu. ft. 
R.P.M. 
B.H.P. 

Cu. ft. 
R.P.M. 
B.H.P. 


10,000 

143 

1. 18 


14.150 

202 

3-32 


L17.350 

248 

6. 10 


20,000 

286 

9.40 


22,400 
320 
13. 1 


24,500 

350 

17.2 


26,500 

378 

21.75 


28,300 

403 

26.6 


31,600 

452 

37-1 


34.700 

495 

48.8 


54 


12,700 

127 

1.49 


17.950 
179 

4.20 


22,000 

220 

7-75 

27,100 

198 

9.58 

32,850 

180 

II. 6 


25.400 

254 

II. 9 


28,400 

284 

16.6 


31.100 
311 

21.9 


33.600 

336 

27.6 


35.900 

359 

33.7 


40,200 

402 

47^1 


44,000 
440 
62. 


60 


Cu. ft. 
R.P.M. 
B.H.P. 


15.650 

114 

1.84 


22,100 

161 

5-20 

26,800 

6.30 


31.300 

228 

14-7 

37.900 

208 

17.8 


35.000 

255 

20.6 

42,300 
232 

24.9 


38,400 

280 

27.0 

46,400 

254 
32.7 


41,400 

302 

34-1 

50,100 

27s 

41.2 


44,200 

322 

41.6 


49.400 

361 

58.2 


54,200 
396 

76. S 


66 


Cu. ft. 
R.P.M. 
B.H.P. 


18,950 

104 

2.23 


53.600 

294 

50.4 


60,000 
328 
70.4 


65.700 

360 

92.6 


72 


Cu. ft. 
R.P.M. 
B.H.P. 


22,600 

95 

2.66 


31,800 
134 

7.48 


39.000 

165 

13.7 


45.200 

190 

21 .2 


50,600 

212 

29.6 


55.200 

233 
38.9 


59,600 

252 

49.0 


63,600 

269 

59.8 


71,200 

301 

83.6 


78,000 
330 
no. 


78 


Cu. ft. 
R.P.M. 
B.H.P. 


26,400 

88 

3.10 


37.350 

124 

8.77 


45.800 

153 

16. 1 


52,800 

176 

24.8 


59,100 

197 

34-7 


64,700 
215 

45.6 


"70,000 

233 

57.5 


74.700 

248 

70.2 


83,500 
278 
98. 


91,600 

30s 

129. 


84 


Cu. ft. 
R.P.M. 
B.H.P. 


30,800 

81 

3.61 


43.400 

115 

10.2 


53.200 

142 

18.7 


61,600 

163 

28.9 


68,700 

182 

40.4 


75.200 
200 

53.0 


81,200 

216 

66.8 


86,800 

231 

81.7 


97,100 
258 
114. 


106,400 

283 

ISO. 


90 


Cu. ft. 
R.P.M. 
B.H.P. 


35.250 

76 

4.14 


49,800 
107 

II. 7 


61,000 

132 

21.5 


70,500 

152 

33-1 


78,800 

170 

46.2 


86,400 

186 

60. 7 


93,300 
201 

76.7 


99,600 

214 

93-6 


111,200 
241 
131. 


122,000 
264 
172. 



APPENDIX 



323 



TABLE XXXIX. — Capacity of Rotary Blowers for Cupolas 



Cu. Ft. 


Revs. 


Tons 


per 
Rev. 


per 
Min. 


per 
Hour 


1-5 


j 200 
i 400 


I 
2 


3-3 


3175 

i 335 


I 
2 


6 


J185 


2 




1 275 


3 


10 


j 200 
1 250 


4 
5 




( 150 


4 


13 


■j 190 


5 




(175 


6J^ 




( 150 


5 


17 


J205 


6K 




(250 


8H 




( 166 


8 


24 


< 200 


10 




( 240 


12 




( 150 
j 180 
( 210 


10 


33 


12 




14 



Suitable 
for Cupola 
In. Diam.* 



18 to 20 



r 241027 
/- 281032 

[ 32 to 38 
32 to 40 

36 to 45 

42 to 54 

48 to 60 



Cu. Ft. 


Revs. 


Tons 


per 


per 


per 


Rev. 


Min. 


Hour 




(135 


12 


45 


] 165 


15 




( 200 


18 




( 130 


15 


57 


] 155 


18 




( 185 


21 




( 140 
< 160 

( 185 


18 


65 


21 




24 




( 125 


21 


84 


] 145 


24 




( 160 


27 




( 120 


24 


100 


] 135 


27 




( 160 


30 




I 115 


27 


118 


j 130 


30 




( 140 


33 



Suitable 
for Cupola 
In. Diam.* 



54 to 66 
60 to 72 
66 to 84 
72 to 90 

84 to 96 

Two 
cupolas 
60 to 66 



* Inside diam. The capacity in tons per hour is based on 30,000 cu. ft. of air per ton of 
iron melted. 



324 



APPENDIX 



TABLE XL. — Diameters of Blast Pipes 
(B. F. Sturtevant Co.) 



u 


oS 


U 










Length of Pipe 


IN Feet 










a 




< 

<=3 
























e 




20 


40 


1 60 


80 


100 


120 


I 


40 


a )-< 


o 








Diameter of Pipe with Drop 


OF 








° 3 


0) a 

■go 


3 ft 
























%x 


% 


V2 


% 


% 


% 


V2 


V4 


% 


% 


V2 


V4 


% 


Vi 


V2 


H 


c 


U 


Oz. 


Oz. 


Oz. 


Oz. 


Oz. 


Oz. 


Oz. 


Oz. 


Oz. 


Oz. 


Oz. 


Oz. 


Oz. 


Oz. 


I 


23 


500 


6 


5 


7 


6 


7 


6 


8 


7 


9 


8 


9 


8 


9 


8 


2 


27 


1,000 


8 


7 


9 


8 


10 


9 


II 


9 


II 


10 


12 


II 


12 


II 


3 


30 


1,500 


10 


8 


II 


10 


II 


10 


12 


II 


13 


II 


13 


12 


14 


12 


4 


32 


2,000 


II 


9 


12 


II 


13 


12 


14 


12 


15 


13 


IS 


14 


16 


14 


S 


36 


2,500 


12 


10 


14 


12 


15 


13 


15 


14 


16 


14 


17 


15 


17 


IS 


6 


39 


3.000 


13 


II 


15 


13 


16 


14 


17 


IS 


18 


15 


18 


16 


18 


16 


7 


42 


3.500 


13 


12 


15 


13 


17 


15 


17 


IS 


18 


16 


19 


17 


20 


18 


8 


45 


4,000 


15 


12 


16 


15 


18 


15 


18 


16 


19 


17 


20 


18 


21 


18 


9 


48 


4.500 


15 


13 


17 


15 


18 


16 


19 


17 


20 


18 


21 


19 


22 


19 


10 


54 


5,000 


15 


13 


18 


15 


19 


17 


20 


18 


21 


18 


22 


19 


23 


20 


II 


54 


5.500 


16 


14 


18 


16 


20 


17 


21 


18 


22 


19 


23 


20 


23 


20 


12 


6o 


6,000 


17 


14 


19 


17 


20 


17 


21 


19 


22 


20 


23 


21 


24 


21 


13 


6o 


6,500 


17 


14 


19 


17 


21 


18 


23 


19 


23 


20 


24 


21 


25 


22 


14 


6o 


7,000 


18 


15 


20 


18 


22 


19 


23 


20 


24 


21 


25 


22 


26 


23 


IS 


66 


7.500 


18 


16 


21 


18 


22 


19 


24 


21 


25 


22 


26 


22 


27 


23 


i6 


66 


8,000 


18 


16 


22 


18 


23 


20 


24 


22 


26 


22 


26 


23 


27 


24 


17 


66 


8,500 


18 


16 


22 


18 


23 


20 


24 


22 


26 


22 


27 


24 


28 


24 


i8 


72 


9,000 


18 


17 


22 


18 


24 


21 


25 


22 


27 


23 


27 


24 


28 


2S 


19 


72 


9.500 


20 


17 


23 


20 


24 


22 


26 


23 


28 


23 


28 


25 


29 


26 


20 


72 


10,000 


20 


18 


23 


20 


25 


22 


27 


23 


28 


24 


29 


25 


30 


26 


21 


78 


10,500 


21 


18 


24 


21 


26 


23 


27 


23 


29 


25 


30 


26 


30 


26 


22 


78 


11,000 


21 


18 


24 


21 


27 


23 


28 


24 


29 


26 


30 


27 


31 


27 


23 


78 


11,500 


21 


19 


25 


21 


27 


24 


28 


25 


30 


26 


30 


27 


31 


27 


24 


84 


12,000 


22 


19 


25 


22 


28 


24 


28 


25 


31 


26 


31 


27 


32 


28 


2S 


84 


12,500 


22 


19 


26 


22 


28 


24 


29 


26 


31 


27 


32 


28 


33 


28 


26 


84 


13.000 


22 


19 


26 


22 


28 


24 


29 


26 


31 


27 


32 


28 


33 


28 


27 


90 


13,500 


23 


20 


26 


23 


28 


24 


30 


26 


31 


27 


32 


28 


34 


28 


28 


90 


14,000 


23 


20 


27 


23 


29 


25 


30 


27 


32 


28 


33 


29 


34 


29 


29 


90 


I4.S00 


23 


20 


27 


23 


29 


26 


31 


27 


32 


28 


33 


29 


34 


30 


30 


90 


15,000 


24 


21 


27 


24 


29 


26 


31 


27 


32 


28 


34 


30 


35 


30 



INDEX 



Admiralty metal, composition of, 

315 
Air-furnace, 271, 288 

construction, 271 

fuel for, 274 

operation, 271 
Alloys, composition of, 279, 315 

copper-tin-zinc-, table of, 316 
Aluminum in iron, 237 
Analyses of castings, 241 
Annealing, 228 
Arbor, 132, 288 

Bars, 288 
Basin, 288 

pouring, 294 
Bath, 288 
Bead-slicker, 288 
Bearing metal, 316 
Bed charge, 250, 288 
Bedding patterns in foundry floor, 

48 
Bellows, 211, 288 
Bench, 288 

work, I, 288 
Binders, 56, 288 

core, 139 
Black sand, 288 
Blacking, charcoal, 232 

coke, 232 

Lehigh, 232 
Blast, 288 

pipes, diameters of, 324 
Blowers, cupola, capacities of, 319, 
321,322 

rotary, for cupola, capacities of, 
323 



Bod, 255, 288 

Bosh, 211, 288 

Boshing, 5 

Bottom-board, 288 

Box, set-off, 295 

Brackets on columns, molding, 70 

Brass, composition of, 315, 317 

founding, 275 

red, composition of, 316 
Brazing metal, composition of, 

315 

solder, 315 
Break-out, 288 
Breast of cupola, 250, 289 
Bricks, fire, 289 

loam, 124, 289 
Bronze, composition of, 316 
Brush, 289 
Buckle, 131, 289 
Bung, 289 

Bush metal, composition of, 315 
Butt, 289 

Calipers, 216, 289 
Camber, 68 

Camel's-hair brush, 289 
Carbon, combined, 234 

graphitic, 235 

in iron. 234 

temper, 235 
Carrying plate, 118, 289 
Car-wheel, molding, 84 
Car-wheels, drop test, 88 

thermal test, 88 
Casting, 289 

malleable, 293 

shrinkage of, 317 



325 



326 



INDEX 



Castings, analyses of iron for, 241 

burning on, 204 

cleaning, 181 

determination of weight of 
from weight of pattern, 314 

mending broken, 204 

straightening crooked, 180 

treatment of, while cooling, 176 
Cementite, 234, 289 
Center of loam mold, 124 
Chains, strength of, 310 
Chaplet, 156, 289 

in cylindrical mold, 159 

in quarter-turn pipe mold, 162 

use of, 62 

use of in column molds, 72 
Charge, 289 

bed, 288 
Charging a cupola, 252 

door, 289 
Cheek, 289 

false, 291 

of loam mold, 123 

ring, 120. 

use of, 20 
Chill, 84, 289 
Chilled work, 289 
Chuck, 289 
Churning, 175, 289 
Jinders, use of in pit molding, 50 
Circles, area and circumference of, 

298 
Clamp, 210, 290 

use of, 33 
Clamping bar, 212, 289 
Clay for bod, 255 

wash, 290 

worm, 63 
Cleaning castings, 181 
Cold shut, 107, 290 
Columns, cores for, 73 

fluted, pattern for, 74 

gating, 72 

molding, 65 



Columns, round, molding, 69 

shrinkage allowance, 74 
Coke, ratio of, to iron in cupola 

charges, 263 
Coolingof castings, 176 
Cope, 3, 290 

ascertaining proper bearing for, 
62, 68, 107 

down, 15, 18, 290 

plate, 119, 290 
Copper in iron, 237 
Copper-tin zinc alloys, 316 
Core, 290 

baked, 288 

barrel, 149 

barrel, venting of, 150 

binders, 139 

blacking for, 154 

box, 138, 290 

cake, 148 

cover, 148 

dry-sand, 138 

for columns, 73 

for steel castings, 137 

green, 292 

green, making, 10 

green, nailing, 10 

grids in, 144 

hook, 286 

loam, sweeping, 132 

locating, 17 

machines, 146 

ovens, 147 

pasting, 63 

plate, 142, 290 

print, 290 

rodding, 144 

sand for, 138, 153 

setting, 156 
Cores, skeleton in, 144 

skim, 168 

tooth, 130 

venting, 63, 142 

wax tapers as vents in, 145 



INDEX 



327 



Core-driers, 103, 145, 291 
Corner tool, 212, 290 
Crane, 284 

floor work, light, 43 
Cross, 124 
Crucible furnace, 275 

tilting furnace, 277 

zone, 259, 290 
Cupola, 290 

blast pressure for, 260 

building breast in, 250 

calculating mixtures for, 265, 
269 

charging, 248 

construction of, 246 

fuel for, 248 

igniting, 249 

lining, repairs of, 257 

operation of, 245 

practice, comparative, table of, 
262 

ratio of iron to fuel, 263 

relation of capacity to blast 
pressure, 263 

slagging, 254 
Cylinder, molding in loam, 116 

Disk crank, cooling of, 177 
Double-ender, 213, 290 
Draft, 290 
Drag, 3 

plate, 118 
Draw-bench frame molding in 
flask, 56 

frame molding in floor, 49 
Draw-nail, 290 

spring, 216, 296 
Draw- peg, 165, 290 
Draw-screw, 212, 291 
Draw-spike, 212, 291 
Dropping bottom of cupola, 256 
Dry sand, 291 

sand cores, 138 

sand mold, 100, 291 



Dry sand molds, finishing, 102 

sand molds, mixtures for, 100 
sand molds, repairing breaks in, 
102 

Driers, core, 145, 291 

Ears, 291 

Engine bed, molding, in sKm-dried 
mold, 91 
cylinder, molding, in dry sand, 

lOI 

Equipment, foundry, 280 
Eye-bolt, 291 

Facing, gas-house carbon, 232 

material, 228 

Rhode Island, 231 
False-cheek, 291 

use of, 21 
Fans, capacities of, 319, 321, 322 
Feeding head, 174, 291 
Ferrite, 234, 291 
Ferro-manganese, 236 
Fire-brick, 289 

number required for various 
circles, 313 

sizes of, 312 
Fire-clay, analyses of, 311 
Fire-sand, 233 
Fitting up snap flask, 4 
Flange tool, 213, 291 
Flask, 281, 291 

barred, 31 

sectional, 109 

snap, 296 

tight, 297 
Flat back, 291 

back pattern, 31 

gate, 291 
Floor mold, closing, 36 

mold, pouring, 36 

molding, 30 

work, I, 30, 29 T 
Flow-off, 56, 291 



328 



INDEX 



Flux, 291 

Fly-wheel, molding, in loam, 128 

segment, molding, 82 
Former for sheet-metal work, mold- 
ing, without pattern, 82 
Foundry, 292 

equipment, 280 

ladles, dimensions of, 314 
Frozen iron, 292 
Fuel for air-furilace, 274 
Furnace, crucible, 275 

crucible tilting, 277 

open-flame oil, 2-]"] 

reverberatory, 294 

Gagger, 33, 211, 292 

board, 287 

use of, 45 
Gap-press frame, molding, in floor, 

58 
Gate, 168, 292 

fiat, 171, 291 

horn, 169, 292 

peg, 168, 294 

skim, 168, 294 

set, 168 

whirl, 172, 297 
Gate-cutter, 216 
Gate-pin, 213 

Gates, location of in barred flask, 33 
Gate-stick, 292 
Gating, 292 

columns, 72 
Gear molding, 25 

split, molding, 28 
Gears, bevel, molding on floor, 39 
Graphite, Ceylon, 230 
Green-sand match, 17, 292 
Grid, 103, 129, 144, 292 

use of, 92 
Gun metal, composition of, 315, 316 

Hand rammer, use of, 4 
squeezer, 185 



Hand wheel, molding, 17 
Hay rope, 132, 292 
Head, feeding, 291 

shrink, 295 
Heap sand, 292 
Hearth, 292 

cupola, 259 
Heat, 292 
Horn gate, 27, 292 
Hub tool, 213, 293 
Hydrofluoric acid, 182 

Ingot mold, 287 

Iron, cast, shrinkage of, 244 

composition of, 234 

for castings, analyses of, 241 

for columns, 74 

for frictional wear, 244 

frozen, 292 

hard, for heavy work, 243 

pig. See Pig Iron 

rammer, use of, 32 

soft, composition of, 243 

Jarring machine, 194, 293 

shockless, 195 
Joint, 293 

making, 4 
Jolt rammer, 194, 293 

King, experiments of, on molding 
sand, 218 

Ladles, foundry, 280 

foundry, dimensions of, 314 
Lathe-bed legs, molding, 30 
Lead, Austrian, 231 

German, 231 

Mexican, 231 
Lifter, 212, 293 
Liquid glass, use of, 38 
Loam, 293 

mixture, 120, 132 

mold, 293 



INDEX 



329 



Loam mold, breaking open, 126 
molding, 116 

Machine molding, 293 
Malleable casting, 293 
Manganese in iron, 236 
Match board, 163 

green-sand, 292 

plate, 165 

plates, aluminum, 188 
Melting points. Table of, 308 

rapidity of, 260 

ratio, 252 

zone, 250, 259, 293 
Mending broken castings, 204 
Metals, weight and specific gravity 

of, 307 
Mixtures, calculation of, for the 

cupola, 265, 269 
Molasses water, loi 
Mold, 293 

dry-sand, 100, 291 

face of, strengthened by rods, 
92 

finishing, 5 

floor, closing, 36 

floor, pouring, 36 

loam, 293 

skin-dried, 90, 295 

types of, I 

v^enting, 11 

weighting of, for pouring, 8 
Mold-board, 293 
Molding car-wheels, 84 

columns, 65 

cover plate with sweep, 76 

cylinder in loam, 116 

double groove sheave in three- 
part flask, 22 

draw-bench frame in flask, 56 

draw-bench frame in floor, 49 

engine bed in skin-dried mold, 

engine cylinder in dry sand, 10 1 



Molding fly-wheel in loam, 128 

fly-wheel segment in green 

sand, 82 
former for sheet- metal work 

without pattern, 82 
gap-press frame in floor, 58 
gears, 25 

gears on the floor, 39 
hand wheel, 17 
in three-part flask, 20 
in two-part flask with false 

cheek, 21 
irregularly shaped patterns, 15 
lathe-bed legs, 30 
loam, 116 
machine, 184, 293 
machine, when to use, 202 
printing-press cylinders in dry 

sand, 108 
pulleys, 37 
rectangular block in snap flask, 

3 
round column, 69 
sand, 217, 293 
sand, analyses of, 220-222 
sand for steel castings, 135 
sand, tests of, 225 
sand, treatment of, 226 
solid shot, 23 
split gears, 28 
tank cover plate with sweep, 

80 
tools, 210 

type cylinder in dry sand, 112 
wire-cloth loom frame, 43 
with sweep, 75 
Muntz metal, 315 

NowEL, 293 

OxY-ACETYLENE welding, 208 



Paraffine board, i{ 
Parting, 294 



). 293 



330 



INDEX 



Parting sand, 294 
Pattern, 294 

determining weight of castings 
from, 314 

drawing, 5, 290 

drawing with the crane, 47 

flat back, 31 

gating of, 292 

mounting, in vibrator frame, 
189 

plate, mounting of spHt pat- 
terns on, 192 

sectional, 109 

split, 296 
Peen, 294 
Peg-gate, 294 
Permeability of sand, 218 
Phosphor-bronze, composition of, 

315 
Phosphorus in iron, 236 
Pickling, 182 
Pig iron, analyses of, 238 

foundry, specifications for, 239 

grading of, 237 
Pins, 294 

Pipe tool, 213, 294 
Pit molding, 48 

preparation of for molding, 50 
Plate, carrying, 289 

cooling of, 178 

cope, 290 

stool, 296 

stripping, 297 
Plumbago, 230 
Print, core, 290 

Printing-press cylinders, cooling of, 
179 

cylinders, molding, in dry sand, 
108 
Porosity of sand, 217 
Pouring-basin, 294 
Pouring-box, 73 
Pulleys, cooling of, 178 

molding, 37 



Pumping, 175, 294 
Putty worm, no 

Rammer, 210, 294 

iron, use of, 32 
Rapping, 294 

iron, 212, 216, 294 
Rattling, 181 
Riddle, 210, 295 
Riser, 174, 295 

for steel castings, 136 

location of in barred flask, 33 
Rods, use of, to strengthen face of 

mold, 92 
Roll-over machine, 197, 295 
Roller, 286 

Ropes, strength of, 309 
Run-out, 295 
Runner, 56, 295 

box, 56 

S-HOOK, 286 
Sand, black, 288 

green, 292 

heap, 292 

mixtures for dry-sand molds, 
100 

molding, 217, 293 

parting, 294 
Scab, 131, 295 
Scaff'olding, 256 
Scrap, use of in cupola, 266, 269 
Seacoal, 228 
Seating, 121 
Sectional flask, 109 

pattern, 109 
Set-off^ box, 34, 295 
Sheave, double-groove, molding in 
three-part flask, 22 

molding, 20 
Shockless jarring machine, 195 
Shot, 295 

molding solid, 23 
Shovel, 210 



INDEX 



331 



Shrinkage, 174 

allowance for columns, 74 

of cast-iron, 244 

table of, 317 
Shrinkhead, 295 
Silicon in iron, 235 

loss of in melting, 261 
Skeleton, 103, 129, 144, 295 

for loam mold, 127 

use of, 92 
Skim core, 295 

gate, 295 
Skin-dried mold, 90, 295 
Slab core, use of, 59 
Slag, 295 

hole, 256, 296 
Slagging cupolas, 254 
Slicker, 212, 296 

bead, 288 
Sling, 284 
Slip, 121, 296 
Slurry, 143, 296 
Snap-flask, 296 

fitting up of, 4 

molding, 3 
Soapstone, 232 
Soldier, 211, 296 

use of, 13 
Specific gravity of metals, 307 
Spheres, area and volume of, 304 
Spiegeleisen, 236 
Spindle, 117, 296 

seat, 75, 117, 296 
Split pattern, 296 

pattern molding machine, 190 

pattern, molding of, 8 

pattern with web center, mold- 
ing of, 12 
Spokes, wrought-iron, casting in hub 

and rim of wheel, 38 
Spoon-slicker, 213, 296 
Spreader, 286 
Spring draw-nail, 216, 296 
Sprue, 296 



Sprue cutter, 216, 296 

cutter, use of, 7 
Squeezer, hand, 292 

power, 185, 294 

split pattern, 296 
Stack, 259, 296 
Staples, 286 
Starch, use of, 231 
Steam metal, 315 
Steel castings, 134 

castings, cores for, 137 

castings, facing for, 135 

castings, fire-clay for, 135 

castings, molding sand for, 135 

castings, risers for, 136 
Stock cores, 145 
Stool, 192, 296 

plate, 192, 296 
Stooling of patterns, 192 
Straight edge, 287 
Strickle, 152, 297 
Strike, 210, 297 
Stripping plate, 190, 297 
Sulphur, absorption of by iron, 260 

in iron, 235 
Swab, 211, 297 

use of, 5 
Sweep, 297 

finger, 76, 287, 297 

molding, 75 

molding in flask, 80 

use of in column molding, 68 
Sweeping loam mold, 120 

Talc, 232 

Tank cover plate, molding, with 

sweep, 80 
Tap hole, 297 
Tapers, wax, in cores, 145 
Thermit welding, 207 
Time-study of hand molding, 200 

of machine molding, 201 
Tin-zinc-copper alloys, 316 
Titanium in iron, 237 



332 



INDEX 



Tobin bronze, composition of, 316 

Transfer plate, 192 

Trowel, 21 1, 297 

Trunnions, loose, 286 

Tumbling-barrel, 181, 282 
sizes of pipe for, 318 
exhaust fan inlets for, 318 

Tuyere, 297 

zone, 259, 297 

Type cylinder, molding, in dry sand, 
112 

Upset, 297 
use of, 15 

Vanadium in iron, 237 
Vent, 297 

wire, 211, 297 
Vibrator, 185, 297 

frame, 185,297 



Vibrator frame, mounting - pat- 
terns in, 189 

Water pail, 210 
Weight of metals, 307 
Welding, oxy-acetylene, 208 

thermit, 207 
Whirl gate, 24, 297 
Wind box, 297 

Wire-cloth loom frame, molding, 43 
Wire, vent, 297 
Worm, clay, 63 

putty, no 

Yoke, 284 

ZiNC-tin-copper alloys, 316 
Zone, crucible, 259, 290 

melting, 250, 259, 293 

tuyere, 259, 297 



Short-title Catalogue 

OF THE 

PUBLICATIONS 

OF 

JOHN WILEY & SONS 

New York 
London: CHAPMAN & HAIX, Limited 



ARRANGED UNDER SUBJECTS 



Descriptive circulars sent on application. Books marked with an asterisk (*) are 
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1 



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Allen's Tables for Iron Analysis 8vo 

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* Tillman's Descriptive General Chemistry Svo, 



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* Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat . .' 8vo, $1 50 

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■' " " " Vol.11 8vo, 5 00 

Washington's Manual of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks 8vo, 2 00 

* Weaver's Military Explosives 8vo, 3 00 

Wells's Laboratory Guide in Qualitative Chemical Analysis 8vo, ] 50 

Short Course in Inorganic Qualitative Chemical Analysis for Engineering 

Students 1 2mo, 1 50 

Text-book of Chemical Arithmetic 1 2mo, 1 25 

Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water 8vo, 3 50 

Wilson's Chlorination Process 12mo, I 50 

Cyanide Processes 12mo, I 60 

Winton's Microscopy of Vegetable Foods 8vo, 7 50 

Zsigmondy's Colloids and the Ultramicroscope. (Ale.xander.). . Lart-e 12mo, 3 00 
\ 

CIVIL ENGINEERING. 

BRIDGES AND ROOFS. HYDRAULICS. MATERIALS OF ENGINEER- 
ING. RAILWAY ENGINEERING. 

* American Civil Engineers' Pocket Book. (Mansfield Merriman, Editor- 

in-chief. ) 16mo. mor. 

Baker's Engineers' Surveying Instruments 12mo, 

Bixby's Graphical Computing Table Paper 19j X 24 J inches. 

Breed and Hosmer's Principles and Practice of Surveying. Vol. I. Elemen- 
tary Surveying 8vo, 

Vol. II. Higher Surveying 8vo, 

* Burr's Ancient and Modern Engineering and the Isthmian Canal 8vo, 

Comstock's Field Astronomy for Engineers 8vo, 

* Corthell's Allowable Pressure on Deep Foundations 12mo, 

Crandall's Text-book on Geodesy and Least Squares 8vo, 

Davis's Elevation and Stadia Tables 8vo, 

Elliott's Engineering for Land Drainage 12mo, 

* Fiebeger's Treatise on Civil Engineering 8vo, 

Flqpier's Phototopographic Methods and Instruments 8vo, 

Folwell's Sewerage. (Designing and Maintenance.) 8vo, 

Freitag's Architectural Engineering 8vo, 

French and Ives's Stereotomy 8vo, 

Gilbert, Wightman, and Saunders's Subways and Tunnels of New York. 

(In Press.) 

* Hauch and Rice's Tables of Quantities for Preliminary Estimates. . . 12mo, 

Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy 8vo, 

Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors.) 16mo, mor. 

Hosmer's Azimuth 16mo, mor. 

* Text-book on Practical Astronomy 8vo, 

Howe's Retaining Walls for Earth 12mo, 

* Ives's Adjustments of the Engineer's Transit and Level 16mo, bds. 

Ives and Hilts's Problems in Surveying, Railroad Surveying and Geod- 
esy 16mo, mor. 

* Johnson (J.B.) and Smith's Theory and Practice of Surveying . Large 12mo, 
Johnson's (L. J.) Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods 8vo, 

* Kinnicutt, Winslow and Pratt's Sewage Disposal 8vo, 

* Mahan's Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 

Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy 8vo, 

Merriman and Brooks's Handbook for Surveyors 16mo, mor. 

Nugent's Plane Surveying 8vo, 

Ogden's Sewer Construction Svo, 

Sewer Design 12mo, 

Parsons's Disposal of Municipal Refuse 8vo, 

Patton's Treatise on Civil Engineering .8vo, half leather, 

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Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching 4to, $5 00 

Riemer's Shaft-sinking under Difficult Conditions. (Corning and Peele.).8vo. 3 OU 

Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry 8vo, 1 50 

Smith's Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.) 8vo, 2 50 

Soper's Air and Ventilation of Subways 12mo, 2 50 

* Tracy's Exercises in Surveying 12mo, mor. 1 00 

Tracy's Plane Surveying 16mo, mor. 3 00 

Venable's Garbage Crematories in America 8vo, 2 00 

Methods and Devices for Bacterial Treatment of Sewage 8vo, 3 00 

Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence 8vo, 6 00 

Sheep, 6 50 

Law of Con tracts 8vo. 3 00 

\,aw of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and 

Architecture 8vo. 5 00 

Sheep, 5 50 

Warren's Stereotomy — Problems in Stone-cutting Svo, 2 50 

* Waterbury's Vest-Pocket Hand-book of Mathematics for Engineers. 

25 X5| inches, mor. 1 00 

* Enlarged Edition, Including Tables n:or. 1 50 

Webb's Problems in the Use and Adjustment of Engineering Instruments. 

16mo, mor. 1 25 

Wilson's Topographic Surveying Svo, 3 50 

BRIDGES AND ROOFS. 

Boiler's Practical Treatise on the Construction of Iron Highway Bridges.. Svo, 

* Thames River Bridge Oblong paper, 

Burr and Falk's Design and Construction of Metallic Bridges Svo, 

Influence Lines for Bridge and Roof Computations Svo, 

Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. II Sma 4 to , 

Foster's Treatise on Wooden Trestle Bridges 4to, 

Fowler's Ordinary Foundations Svo, 

Greene's Arches in Wood, Iron, and Stone Svo, 

Bridge Trusses Svo. 

Roof Trusses Svo, 

Grimm's Secondary Stresses in Bridge Trusses Svo, 

Heller's Stres.ses in Structures and the Accompanying Deformations.. . .Svo, 
Howe's Design of Simple Roof- trusses in Wood and Steel Svo. 

Symmetrical Masonry Arches Svo, 

Treatise on Arches Svo, 

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Sondericker's Graphic Statics, with Applications to Trusses, Beams, and 
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* Specifications for Steel Bridges 12mo, 

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HYDRAULICS. 

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an Orifice. (Trautwine.) Svo, 2 00 

Bovey's Treatise on Hydraulics Svo, 5 00 

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Church's Diagrams of Mean Velocity of Water in Open Channels. 

Oblong 4to, paper, $1 50 

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Mechanics of Fluids (Being Part IV of Mechanics of Engineering) . .8vo, 3 00 

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Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power 12mo, 3 00 

Folwell's Water-supply Engineering , 8vo, 4 00 

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Water-filtration Works 12mo, 2 50 

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Rivers and Other Channels. (Hering and Trautwine.) 8vo, 4 00 

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* Morrison and Brodie's High Masonry Dam Design ' 8vo, 1 50 

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Schuyler's Reservoirs for Irrigation, Water-power, and Domestic Water- 
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Whipple's Value of Pure Water Large 12mo, 1 00 

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Wilson's Irrigation Engineering 8vo, 4 00 

Wood's Turbines 8vo, 2 50 



MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING. 

Baker's Roads and Pavements 8vo, 5 00 

Treatise on Masonry Construction 8vo, 5 00 

Black's United States Public Works Oblong 4to. 5 00 

Blanchard and Drowne's Highway Engineering. (In Press.) 

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Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering 8vo, 7 50 

Byrne's Highway Construction 8vo, 5 00 

Inspection of the Materials and Workmanship Employed in Construction. 

16mo, 3 00 

Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 6 00 

Mechanics of Solids (Being Parts I, II, III of Mechanics of Engineer- 
ing 8vo, 4 50 

Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. 

Vol. I. Kinematics, Statics, Kinetics Small 4to, 7 50 

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Theory of Flexures Small 4to, 10 00 

Eckel's Building Stones and Clays. (In Press.) 

* Cements, Limes, and Plasters 8vo, 6 00 

Fowler's Ordinary Foundations 8vo, 3 50 

* Greene's Structural Mechanics 8vo, 2 50 

Holley's Analysis of Paint and Varnish Products. (In Press.) 

* Lead and Zinc Pigments Large 12mo, 3 00 

* Hubbard's Dust Preventives and Road Binders 8vo, 3 00 



Johnson's (C. M.) Rapid Methods for the Chemical Analysis of Special Steels, 

Steel-making Alloys and Graphite Large 12mo, 

Johnson's (J. B.) Materials of Construction Large 8vo, 

Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 

Lanza's Applied Mechanics 8vo. 

Lowe's Paints for Steel Structures 12mo, 

Maire's Modern Pigments and their Vehicles 12mo, 

Maurer's Technical Mechanics 8vo, 

Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration 8vo, 

Merriman's Mechanics of Materials 8vo, 

* Strength of Materials 12mo, 

Metcalf 's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users 12mo, 

Morrison's Highway Engineering 8vo, 

* Murdock's Strength of Materials 12mo, 

Patton's Practical Treatise on Foundations 8vo, 

Rice's Concrete Block Manufacture 8vo, 

Richardson's Modem Asphalt Pavement 8vo, 

Richey's Building Foreman's Pocket Book and Ready Reference. 16mo, mor. 

* Cement Workers' and Plasterers' Edition (Building Mechanics' Ready 

Reference Series) 16mo, mor. 

Handbook for Superintendents of Construction 16mo, mor. 

* Stone and Brick Masons' Edition (Building Mechanics' Ready 

Reference Series) 16mo, mor. 

* Ries's Clays : Their Occurrence, Properties, and Uses 8vo, 

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States 8vo. 

Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paint and Varnish 8vo, 

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Snow's Principal Species of Wood 8vo, 

Spalding's Hydraulic Cement 12mo, 

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* Taylor and Thompson's Extracts on Reinforced Concrete Design 8vo, 

Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced 8vo, 

Thurston's Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts 8vo, 

Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering and Metallurgy. . . .8vo, 

Part II. Iron and Steel 8vo, 

Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their 

Constituents 8vo, 

Tillson's Street Pavements and Paving Materials 8vo, 

Turneaure and Maurer's Principles of Reinforced Concrete Construction. 

Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged 8vo, 

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the Preservation of Timber 8vo, 2 00 

Wood's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings; Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and 

Steel 8vo, 4 00 



RAILWAY ENGINEERING. 

Andrews's Handbook for Street Railway Engineers 3X5 inches, mor 

Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads 4to, 

Brooks's Handbook of Street Railroad Location 16mo, mor. 

* Burt's Railway Station Service 12nio, 

Butts's Civil Engineer's Field-book 16mo, mor. 

Crandall's Railway and Other Earthwork Tables 8vo, 

Crandall and Barnes's Railroad Surveying 16mo, mor. 

* Crockett's Methods for Earthwork Computations 8vo, 

Dredge's History of the Pennsylvania Railroad. (1879) Paper, 

Fisher's Table of Cubic Yards Cardboard, 

Godwin's Railroad Engineers' Field-book and Explorers' Guide. . 16mo, mor. 
Hudson's Tables for Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and Em- 

bankmen ts 8vo, 

Ives and Hilts's Problems in Surveying, Railroad Surveying and Geodpsy 

Ifimo, mor. 
Molitor and Beard "s Manual for Resident Engineers 16mo, 

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Nagle's Field Manual for Railroad Engineers .... 16mo, mor. f.^ 00 

* Orrock's Railroad Structures and Estimates 8vo, 3 00 

Philbrick's Field Manual for Engineers 16mo, mor. 3 00 

Raymond's Railroad Field Geometry 16mo, mor. 2 00 

Elements of Railroad Engineering 8vo, 3 50 

Railroad Engineer's Field Book. (In Preparation.) 

Roberts' Track Formula; and Tables 16mo, mor. 3 00 

Searles's Field Engineering , 16mo, mor. 3 00 

Railroad Spiral 16mo, mor. 1 50 

Taylor's Prismoidal Formulae and Earthwork 8vo, 1 50 

Webb's Economics of Railroad Constmction Large 12mo, 2 50 

Railroad Construction 16mo, mor. 5 00 

■Wellington's Economic Theory of the Location of Railways Large 12mo, 5 00 

Wilson's Elements of Railroad-Track and Construction 12mo, 2 00 

DRAWING 

Barr and Wood's Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 2 50 

* Eartlett's Mechanical Drawing 8vo, ? 00 

* " " " Abridged Ed 8vo, 150 

* Bartlett and Johnson's Engineering Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 1 50 

Blessing and Darling's Descriptive Geometry. (In Press.) 

Elements of Drawing. (In Press.) 

Coolidge's Manual of Drawing 8vo, paper, 1 00 

Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical Engi- 
neers Oblong 4to, 2 50 

Durley's Kinematics of Machines 8vo, 4 00 

Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its Application 8vo, 2 50 

Hill's Text-book on Shades and Shadows, and Perspective 8vo, 2 00 

Jamison's Advanced Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 2 00 

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Jones's Machine Design: 

Part I. Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 1 50 

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Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design.. 8vo, 3 00 

Robinson's Principles of Mechanism Svo, 3 00 

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Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design Svo, 3 00 

Suiith's (R. S.) Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.) Svo, 2 60 

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Lob's Electrochemistry of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.) 8vo, 3 00 

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LAW. 

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MATHEMATICS. 

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Coolidge's Manual of Drawing Svo, paper, 

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